Дослідження виробничого регіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу
This article presents the results of research on medieval quarries and specialised settlements engaged in the processing of pyrophyllite slate, conducted in the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge. The study characterises the pyrophyllite slate industry sites in the microregion of Prybytky&n...
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| author_institution_txt_mv | [
{
"author": "S. V. Pavlenko ",
"institution": "Junior Research Fellow, the Institute of Archaeology, the National Academy of Sciences, the Ancient Rus and Medieval Archaeology Department, the Institute of Archaeology, the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine",
"orcid": ""
}
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| container_title | Археологія |
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| datestamp_date | 2025-12-08T01:03:51Z |
| description | This article presents the results of research on medieval quarries and specialised settlements engaged in the processing of pyrophyllite slate, conducted in the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge. The study characterises the pyrophyllite slate industry sites in the microregion of Prybytky — Cherevky, examines the composition of the cultural layer of settlements and workshop deposits, and describes the methods and approaches used in their investigation. All categories of production artefacts are analysed, including chips, mineral raw material remains, defective blanks, semi-finished products, and production waste from the production of spindle whorls, pectoral crosses, and beads made of pyrophyllite slate. Tool traces on production artefacts are also considered. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.15407/archaeologyua2025.04.114 |
| first_indexed | 2026-08-07T01:06:14Z |
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НАЦIОНАЛЬНА АКАДЕМIЯ НАУК УКРАЇНИ • IНСТИТУТ АРХЕОЛОГIЇ НАН УКРАЇНИ
НАУКОВИЙ ЖУРНАЛ – ЗАСНОВАНИЙ У 1947 р.
ВИДАЄТЬСЯ ЩОКВАРТАЛЬНО
КИЇВ 4 2025
АРХЕОЛОГIЯ
Головний редактор
ЧАБАЙ В. П., член-кореспондент НАН України, Iнститут археологiї НАН України
Редакцiйна колегiя
БОЛТРИК Ю. В., кандидат iсторичних наук, Iнститут археологiї НАН України
БУЙСЬКИХ А. В., член-кореспондент НАН України, Iнститут археологiї НАН України
ГАРДІ С. Е., PhD, Університет ім. Рея Хуана Карлоса, Іспанія
ДЖIНДЖАН Ф., професор, доктор хаб., почесний професор унiверситету Париж 1 Пантеон
Сорбонна, Францiя
ЗАЛIЗНЯК Л. Л., професор, доктор iсторичних наук, Нацiональний унiверситет
«Києво-Могилянська академiя»
КАЙЗЕР Е., професор, доктор хаб., Вiльний унiверситет Берлiну, Німеччина
ОТРОЩЕНКО В. В., професор, доктор iсторичних наук, Iнститут археологiї НАН України
ПЛАВІНСЬКИЙ М. О., кандидат історичних наук, Варшавський університет, Польща
ПОТЄХIНА I. Д., кандидат iсторичних наук, Iнститут археологiї НАН України
РАБІНОВІЦ А., PhD, Техаський університет в Остіні, Сполучені штати Америки
ФОРНАСЬЄ Й., професор, доктор хаб., Галле-Віттенбергський університет імені Мартіна Лютера,
Німеччина
ШЕВЧЕНКО T. М., кандидат історичних наук, Інститут археології НАН України (вiдповiдальний секретар)
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF UKRAINE • INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY NAS OF UKRAINE
SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL – FOUNDED IN 1947
FREQUENCY: QUARTERLY
Editor-in-Chief
CHABAI V. P., Corresponding Member of the NAS of Ukraine, Institute of Archaeology
of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
Editorial Board
BOLTRYK Yu. V., PhD in History, Institute of Archaeology of the NAS of Ukraine
BUISKYKH A. V., Corresponding Member of the NAS of Ukraine, Institute of Archaeology of the NAS of Ukraine
DJINDJIAN F., Professor, Dr. Hab., Professor of the University of Paris 1 Pantheon Sorbonne, France
FORNASIER J., Professor, Dr. Hab., Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany
HARDY S. A., PhD, Rey Juan Carlos University, Spain
KAISER E., Professor, Dr. Hab., Free University of Berlin, Germany
OTROSHCHENKO V. V., Professor, DSc in History, Institute of Archaeology of the NAS of Ukraine
PLAVINSKI M. O., PhD in History, University of Warsaw, Poland
POTEKHINA I. D., PhD in History, Institute of Archaeology of the NAS of Ukraine
RABINOWITZ A., PhD in Classical Archaeology, University of Texas at Austin, the USA
SHEVCHENKO T. M., PhD in History, Institute of Archaeology NAS of Ukraine (Executive Secretary)
ZALIZNIAK L. L., Professor, DSc in History, National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy
ARHEOLOGIA
KYIV 4 2025
ЗМIСТ CONTENTS
Articles
СТЕПАНЧУК В. М., НАУМЕНКО О. О., ТИС-
ЛЮК В. В. Вивчення зв’язку між залишками піг-
менту та розтріскуванням ковпакоподібної форми:
приклад із Заскельної V
ПАЛМЕР Р., ФОУЛЕР М., ВАРД В., КАРЯ-
КА О. В. Ландшафтне археологічне обстеження
6600 км2 Черкаської обл. (Україна) з вико-
ристанням супутникових знімків із відкритих
джерел: другий звіт
МОГИЛОВ О. Д. Поховальні споруди Cвітло-
водського могильника скіфського часу на серед-
ньому Дніпрі
ПУГОЛОВОК Ю. О., КУШНІР А. С., МАТ-
ВІЇШИНА Ж. М. Палеоландшафтний аналіз
ранньослов’янського городища в Опішні
Publications
of Archaeological Materials
KOVALENKO O. V., REIDA R. M. Alanian Buri-
al of the Hun Period (Barrow no. 17 of the Cemetery
near Storozhove Village)
To the History
of Ancient Crafts
ПАВЛЕНКО С. В. Дослідження виробничого ре-
гіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні
Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу
Статтi
STEPANCHUK V. M., NAUMENKO O. O., TY-
SLIUK V. V. Examining the Association Between
Pigment Residues and Potlid-like Cracking: a Case
Study from Zaskelna V
PALMER R., FOWLER M., WARD V., KARIA-
KA O. V. An Archaeological Landscape Survey of
6600 km2 of Cherkasy Oblast, Ukraine, Using Open-
Source Satellite Images: Second Report
MOHYLOV O. D. Scythian Period Funerary Con-
structions of the Svitlovodsk Cemetery in the Middle
Dnipro Region
PUHOLOVOK Yu. O., KUSHNIR A. S., MAT-
VIISHYNA Zh. M. Paleolandscape Analysis of the
Early Slavic Hillfort in Opishnia
Публiкацiї
археологiчних матерiалiв
КОВАЛЕНКО О. В., РЕЙДА Р. М. Аланське
поховання гунського часу (курган 17 могильника
поблизу с. Сторожове)
До iсторiї
стародавнього виробництва
PAVLENKO S. V. Study of the Industrial Region
of the Pyrophyllite Slate Industry in the South of the
Slovechno-Ovruch Ridge
5
23
53
77
91
114
Iсторiя науки
БРОВЕНДЕР Ю. М. Становлення і розвиток
східноукраїнського осередку наукової школи
професора В. В. Отрощенка (до 80-річчя юві-
ляра)
Хронiка
Пам’яті Олександра Петровича Моці
Алфавiтний покажчик змiсту журналу
«Археологiя» за 2025 рiк
History of Science
BROVENDER Yu. M. The Formation and Devel-
opment of the Eastern Ukrainian Centre of Professor
V. V. Otroshchenko’s Research School (on the Oc-
casion of his 80th Anniversary)
News Review
To the Memory of Oleksandr Petrovych Motsia
Index of Publications in Arheologia Journal in
2025
139
149
150
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2025, № 4114
До iсторiї
стародавнього виробництва
УДК: 904.21(477.42)”653”-032.5
https://doi.org/10.15407/arheologiaua2025.04.114
© PAVLENKO Serhii Vasyliovych, 2025 — Junior Research
Fellow, the Institute of Archaeology, the National Academy
of Sciences, the Ancient Rus and Medieval Archaeology
Department, the Institute of Archaeology, the National
Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, ORCID: 0000-0002-3138-
5746, pavlenko@iananu.org.ua
© Інститут археології НАН України, 2025
STUDY OF THE INDUSTRIAL REGION
OF THE PYROPHYLLITE SLATE INDUSTRY
IN THE SOUTH
OF THE SLOVECHNO-OVRUCH RIDGE
S. V. PAVLENKO
с. 58-59). Among the synchronous branches of the
Ancient Rus economy (crafts), the pyrophyllite
slate industry held a special place due to such fac-
tors as: 1) unique production and aesthetic proper-
ties, as well as the availability of locally concen-
trated mineral raw materials for industrial develop-
ment; 2) the significant quantity of extracted and
utilised raw materials; 3) a high level of technologi-
cal process development, including tools and equip-
ment; 4) standardisation and quality control of man-
ufactured products; 5) a broad product range (archi-
tectural and decorative elements such as wall and
floor slabs, capitals, parapets, and cornices; craft
tools such as spindle whorls, millstones, crucibles,
and casting moulds; jewellery and religious items
including beads, pectoral crosses, icons, and reli-
gious plaques) and an extensive area of products
distribution and trade; 6) the potential high val-
ue and possible monetary-accumulative function
of certain products, such as spindle whorls (Янин
1956, с. 187-189); 7) direct involvement of princely
authority through political and administrative-eco-
nomic control over the Ovruch district.
Until now, research on the pyrophyllite slate in-
dustry — from identifying ancient extraction sites
and studying raw material sources to reconstructing
production processes, technological tools, mecha-
nisms, and spheres of application and distribution —
has been practically non-existent (for a brief overview
of industry studies, see: Томашевський, Павленко,
Петраускас 2003, с. 132; Томашевський 2017,
с. 243, 246, 253, 258-259, 261-262).
Since 1996, the Ovruch Expedition of the In-
stitute of Archaeology of the National Academy
of Sciences of Ukraine has been conducting re-
search as part of a separate project on the histor-
ical-archaeological and palaeoenvironmental herit-
age of the Ovruch district in the Slovechno-Ovruch
This article presents the results of research on me-
dieval quarries and specialised settlements en-
gaged in the processing of pyrophyllite slate, con-
ducted in the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge. The study
characterises the pyrophyllite slate industry sites
in the microregion of Prybytky — Cherevky, exam-
ines the composition of the cultural layer of settle-
ments and workshop deposits, and describes the
methods and approaches used in their investiga-
tion. All categories of production artefacts are an-
alysed, including chips, mineral raw material re-
mains, defective blanks, semi-finished products,
and production waste from the production of spin-
dle whorls, pectoral crosses, and beads made of
pyrophyllite slate. Tool traces on production arte-
facts are also considered.
K e y w o r d s: Slovechno-Ovruch mountain ridge,
Ovruch medieval industry, pyrophyllite slate, pro-
duction settlements, quarries, workshops, spindle
whorls, crosses, beads.
During the Ancient Rus period (10th–13th centuries),
a specialised system for the extraction and process-
ing of pyrophyllite slate, as well as the distribu-
tion of raw materials, semi-finished items, and fin-
ished products, was formed and developed in the
Slovechno-Ovruch ridge. This took place within
a specially established district under the authority
of the Grand Prince of Kyiv (Томашевский 2008,
This is an Open Access article under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode.en
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2025, № 4 115
ridge (Томашевський 1998а, 1998b, 2005). Stud-
ies have been carried out on medieval pyrophyllite
slate industry sites, including raw material quarries
and specialised production settlements. As a result,
data on previously known sites have been verified,
refined, and supplemented. Several new production
settlements have been discovered, and their spe-
cialisation within the industry has been determined.
Surface outcrops of pyrophyllite slate and quartz-
ite have been localised, ancient quarrying sites
have been studied, an archaeological map of indus-
try-related objects has been created, and produc-
tion microregions within the broader Ancient Rus
settlement system of the ridge have been identi-
fied (Павленко 2010, с. 157-162, табл. 1; Ивакин,
Томашевский, Павленко 2010, с. 391, 392). In the
2002 season, for the first time, the remains of work-
shops for processing pyrophyllite slate were discov-
ered and systematically documented at two produc-
tion settlements (Томашевський, Павленко 2003;
Павленко 2005; 2008).
Among all the sites of the pyrophyllite slate in-
dustry studied by the expedition, the most inter-
esting and, in many ways, unique are the sites of
the Prybytky — Cherevky production microre-
gion, located on the southern spurs of the Slovech-
no-Ovruch ridge (fig. 1: 1, 2): the specialised set-
tlements Prybytky 1 and Prybytky 2, the location
in the Korchi tract, and the system of medieval
quarries in the Yamy tract (fig. 1: 2, 3). The main
feature of this microregion is that, alongside the
remains of spindle-whorl manufacture, production
waste from small ornaments — pendant crosses,
beads, religious plaques, and amulets made from
Fig. 1. Prybytky — Cherevky production microregion: 1 — location on the territory of Ukraine; 2 — digital model of the
microregion; 3 — digital model of the location of the Prybytky 1 and Prybytky 2 production settlements; 4, 5 — model, plan and
section of the collapse spot of the Prybytky 1 production workshop. Symbols: a — location microregion; b — areas of site; c —
quarries; d — barrow; e — excavation area; f — stones; g — defective blanks; h — pyrophyllite chips
1 2
3
500 m
4 50 20 cm 0 20 cm
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2025, № 4116
highly decorative varieties of pyrophyllite slate
extracted from a quarry near Cherevky village —
was found in settlements near Prybytky village.
This article seeks to offer a comprehensive ac-
count of a specific micro-region located on the
Slovechno-Ovruch ridge, distinguished by its role
in the medieval production and processing of py-
rophyllite slate.
Pyrophyllite Slate of the Slovechno-Ovruch Ridge
Before turning to the analysis of production
settlements and investigated objects, we con-
sider it appropriate to briefly describe the pyro-
phyllite slate common in this region (cf: Тома-
шевський, Павленко, Петраускас 2003, с. 132;
Wołoszyn et al. 2016, s. 600-601).
Pyrophyllite slate is a metamorphic, fine-
grained, schistose rock characterized by well-de-
fined foliation. The principal rock-forming minerals
are pyrophyllite (Al2Si4O10(OH)2)1, with contents
ranging from 52 % to 99 %, and quartz (SiO2). Py-
rophyllite slate may also contain kaolinite, dickite,
hematite, goethite, hydromicas (notably illite), mus-
covite, hydromuscovite, hydrohematite, and hydro-
goethite. In rare cases, the presence of halloysite,
montmorillonite, and sericite is recorded. Accesso-
ry minerals include rutile, zircon, tourmaline, py-
rite, apatite, and epidote (ред. Усенко 1975, с. 362;
Танкилевич 1978, с. 38-44, 63-65, 74, 164).
Within the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge, pyrophyl-
lite slate exhibits notable variability in mineral-
ogical composition and physico-chemical charac-
teristics, even at the scale of a single deposit. The
chemical composition of the slate reveals notable
variations in the proportions of key oxides. In par-
ticular, a direct correlation has been observed be-
tween iron oxide content and the intensity of schist
1 In archaeological publications, the terms “pyrophyllite”
and “pyrophyllite slate” are often used interchangeably.
This is evidenced, in particular, by the systematic use of
expressions such as “pyrophyllite spindle whorl” or “hand-
iwork of pyrophyllite”. In contrast, geological terminolo-
gy clearly differentiates between a mineral (pyrophyllite)
and a rock (pyrophyllite slate). Pyrophyllite is a mineral —
a distinct chemical compound with a defined crystal struc-
ture. Pyrophyllite slate is a rock in which pyrophyllite is the
principal rock-forming component, although it also con-
tains significant amounts of other minerals. The properties
of pyrophyllite slate are not merely those of pure pyrophyl-
lite, but rather the result of the combined effect of its min-
eral constituents and their spatial arrangement. Moreover,
monomineral pyrophyllite formations do not occur in na-
ture. For the products of the Ovruch medieval industry, the
correct term is “pyrophyllite slate”.
coloration, ranging from pale pink to dark purple
hues (Танкилевич 1978, с. 58, 62, 65, 74).
Among the pyrophyllite slates of the Slovech-
no-Ovruch ridge, two principal varieties are rec-
ognised: those from the Zbranky deposit and those
from the Nahoriany deposit. The Zbranky slates
are richer in pyrophyllite and are notable for their
softness and decorative appearance, particularly
due to the presence of spotted varieties. The Naho-
riany slates are characterised by a high content of
iron oxides and quartz, which makes them harder
and darker in colour — from deep pink to purple
(Танкилевич 1978, с. 57, 62).
Pyrophyllite slates are spatially and genetical-
ly associated with the Upper Proterozoic volcano-
genic-sedimentary formations of the Ovruch series,
which fill a local platform graben-syncline structure
in the northern part of the Ukrainian Shield. They oc-
cur interbedded among pink quartzose sandstones
and quartzites of the Tovkachi suit as layers ranging
in thickness from a few centimetres to several tens of
metres, or as lens-shaped bodies (ред. Усенко 1975,
с. 363; Танкилевич 1978, с. 12-14, 28, табл. 163;
cf.: Полєтаєв та ін. 2013, с. 34-35, 38-40).
A range of characteristic properties defines the
practical value of pyrophyllite slates. The main ones
are as follows: a) mechanical properties: softness and
plasticity, with a Mohs hardness of one to two. The
rock has a soapy and smooth feel, is easily cleavable,
and readily subjected to cutting, grinding, and other
mechanical processing methods; b) chemical inert-
ness: resistant to acids, alkalis, and other aggressive
chemical environments; c) physical stability: electri-
cally and magnetically neutral, naturally hydropho-
bic; d) thermophysical characteristics: combine low
thermal conductivity, high specific heat capacity,
and minimal thermal shrinkage (Танкилевич 1978,
с. 148-150). Owing to these properties, pyrophyl-
lite slates have been used since the medieval period.
The geologist and archaeologist G. Ossowski was the
first to document the association of pyrophyllite slate
from the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge with Ancient Rus
artefacts (Оссовский 1878).
The system of medieval quarries in the
Yamy tract is associated with the deposit near the
village of Rudnia-Frankivka. The pyrophyllite
slates of this deposit are characterised by a reduced
content of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and an in-
creased content of silicon dioxide (SiO2). The rock
colour varies from pink to burgundy-purple. The
slate exhibits medium hardness, a compact struc-
ture, and a greasy feel to the touch (Жуковський
1937, с. 26-28).
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2025, № 4 117
Characterisation of the Production Microregion
The Prybytky 1 settlement is located on the
north-eastern outskirts of the village, on the west-
ern, relatively gentle slopes of the valley on the left
bank of the Tatarynka River. The surveyed area of
the settlement today is two hectares, a significant
part of which is cultivated (fig. 1: 3). The settle-
ment was first discovered and described in 1983
by R. S. Orlov, who, in a small test pit, along with
fragments of Ancient Rus ceramics, recorded pro-
duction waste and blanks of spindle whorls and
pendant crosses made of pyrophyllite slate (Орлов,
Терпиловский 1983, с. 62-68, рис. 14: 1–14). It is
likely that this same settlement, but under a differ-
ent name, was known to the Director of the Zhy-
tomyr Local History Museum, V. О. Misiats. The
researcher’s brief archaeological reports mention
the discovery of production remnants of cross-
es at a site near the neighboring Stari Velednyky
village (Місяць 1956, с. 3-5). Our many years of
searching for an archaeological site with pyroph-
yllite slate industry artefacts near the specified vil-
lage failed (see: Томашевський 2017, с. 258-259,
262). Since 1996, work at the Prybytky 1 settle-
ment has been conducted by the Ovruch Archae-
ological Expedition of the Institute of Archaeolo-
gy of the NAS of Ukraine (Томашевський 1998b,
с. 47).
On the opposite bank of the river, in the back-
yards of rural homesteads, the Prybytky 2 settle-
ment is located, covering an area of 1.5–2.0 hec-
tares (fig. 1: 3), also associated with pyrophyllite
slate and possibly iron processing.
A few hundred meters north of the Prybytky 1
settlement, in the floodplain of the river, we dis-
covered a separate site or production complex
(Korchi tract) with a high concentration of cross
and bead production remains in the cultural layer.
Approxinmately 7–8 km to the west, in Quad-
rat No. 13 of the Velednytske forestry in the
Yamy tract (fig. 1: 2с), the expedition discovered
and investigated a system of medieval quarry pits,
which were industrially connected to the settle-
ment complex near Prybytky village.
During the 2002 season, archaeological work
in the microregion was focused on the Prybytky 1
settlement and the Yamy tract. At the Prybytky 1
settlement, an excavation area of 140 m2 revealed
four structures and fifteen household pits. One of
the studied structures was most likely the remains
of a dwelling, while the second was a workshop
for processing pyrophyllite slate (fig. 1: 4, 5). Most
of the investigated objects are dated to the 12th–
13th centuries.
In the Yamy tract, preliminary studies of medie-
val production quarries were conducted for the first
time in 2002. Small-scale excavations were carried
out in several of the most representative pits and
quarries to study these complexes. Test trenching
was conducted around the pits and quarries, sam-
ples of possible mineral varieties were collected,
and a site plan of the quarries was created.
At the Prybytky 2 settlement, observations
were made regarding the nature, thickness, and
preservation of the cultural layer, and material was
collected for analysis. To determine the character-
istics of the cultural layer at the Korchi tract site, a
special test trench of 4 m2 was excavated.
It should be noted that during the work, unprec-
edented experience was gained in the study of such
complexes — both settlements and production ob-
jects. Methodological techniques and methods for
recording and registering the obtained information
were developed.
Characteristics of the Cultural Layer at the Pry-
bytky 1 Settlement
The cultural layer of production settlements
has, for the first time, become the subject of spe-
cialised research. A methodology for preliminary
differentiated marking and subsequent mapping
of production waste, ceramics, and other finds ap-
pearing on the surface was applied and tested. Ad-
ditionally, an algorithm was developed and tested
for the disassembly, sorting, counting, and anal-
ysis of archaeological material extracted from a
control excavation quadrat measuring 2 × 2 m.
The thickness of the cultural layer at the Pry-
bytky 1 settlement is relatively small, not uniform
everywhere, and varies within approximately 25–
40 cm. The surface of the settlement’s subsoil has
been significantly disturbed by traces of ploughing
from different periods, including very deep recla-
mation ploughing, which in some areas has affected
the deeper parts of archaeological feature fillings.
The composition of the cultural layer, its sat-
uration with pyrophyllite slate processing waste,
and other categories of finds can be exemplified by
the analysis of Quadrat B2 from the 2002 excava-
tion (table 1). Notably, the cultural layer is dom-
inated by defective remains and waste from spin-
dle whorl production, as well as raw material frag-
ments in various sizes, while ceramic fragments
and other finds are relatively scarce.
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The settlement layer is mainly composed of ce-
ramics from the 12th–13th centuries, with a signifi-
cant number of ceramic fragments from the 10th to
the early 11th centuries and some fragments from the
mid-13th to 14th centuries. During ploughing of the
settlement area, residents repeatedly found fragments
and even whole slabs of pyrophyllite slate. One such
slab, measuring 2.2 × 1.0–1.2 m, was recorded at the
threshold of a modern household. The cultural lay-
er and the examined features of the settlements are
rich in evidence of ironworking, including fragments
of bloomery iron, tuyères, and slags of various types
and sizes. These finds indicate the parallel function-
ing of pyrophyllite- and iron-processing industries
at the settlements. It is worth noting that such coex-
istence has been observed at most specialised settle-
ments in the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge (Томашевский
2008, с. 66; Павленко 2010, с. 161).
Characteristics of the Workshop
The remains of the workshop excavated at the
Prybytky 1 settlement represent a slightly sunken
area, approximately 12–15 cm deep into the sub-
soil, with amorphous contours measuring about
2 × 3 m (fig. 1: 4, 5). It is likely that the upper part
of the structure, probably a ground-level build-
ing, has been destroyed, while the small preserved
sunken portion is heavily deformed (fig. 2: 1–3).
It is possible that the depth of the foundation pit
was influenced by the nature of the moraine sub-
soil, which consists of extremely hard dark-or-
ange clays saturated with moraine quartzites, brec-
cia-like conglomerates, and flint. The surface of the
palaeosoil in the excavated area bears clear traces
of ploughing from different periods and in various
directions, including deep reclamation plough-
ing, which destroyed the remains of the structure
(fig. 2: 4). The investigated object is filled with
production waste, remnants of blanks, semi-fin-
ished products, and defective items, all mixed with
fine chips and fragments of pink and white-pink
varieties of pyrophyllite slate (fig. 2: 5–8).
No structural details of the building were ob-
served, mainly due to the degree of preservation of
the object. Based on its shape and parameters, the
object does not resemble the storage or waste pits
excavated in the area.
On the exposed area of the settlement, specif-
ic artefacts — waste and defective remains from
the production of pyrophyllite slate spindle whorls
and crosses — are concentrated at the location of
the object. In all other nearby excavated complex-
es, such artefacts are found only sporadically and
are most likely intrusive from the surrounding cul-
tural layer.
Further analysis of all material recovered from
the collapse demonstrated that we are dealing with
the remains of a single technological unit with its
own distinct style. It was also noted that during
material processing, certain fragments originating
from different parts of the collapse belonged to the
same original item — semi-finished products and
spindle whorl blanks. The nature and composition
of the investigated collapse-filling (its compact-
ness, density, and consolidation) clearly indicate
that it resulted from a single, simultaneous event.
Taken together, these observations allow us to
reasonably assume that, in this case, the preserved
remains (under the specific conditions of the site)
represent a production building — a workshop.
Regardless of the interpretation of the object
and the origin of its contents — an array of chips,
defective products and production waste — wheth-
er it represents the workshop itself or, perhaps, an
outflow from an object that did not fall within the
area of our excavation (which is unlikely), its sig-
nificance remains unchanged. This uniquely dated,
single-phase, essentially sealed production com-
plex — investigated for the first time — is crucial
for understanding the mechanisms of the Ovruch
pyrophyllite slate industry.
To our knowledge, no prior research has been
conducted on similar production sites. Therefore, the
entire assemblage of materials from the workshop
was of particular interest to us. The need to fully doc-
ument and classify the contents required the imple-
mentation of a specialised program for recording and
registering materials, as well as their archaeomet-
ric analysis. It’s the first time we encountered such a
dense, compacted, and highly mineralised filling of
complex structure and composition. Its excavation
required the development of a specialised methodol-
Table 1. Composition and intensity of the
cultural layer of the Prybytky 1 settlement
Components of the cultural layer Amount
Stone fragments and debris of
pyrophyllite slate, kg 8.3
Waste and defective blanks of spindle
whorl production, items 355
Fragments of ceramics, items 53
Individual finds, items (fragment of
glass bracelet) 1
Slags, items 12
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Fig. 2. Prybytky 1, production workshop: 1 — collapse spot at the moment of detection; 2 — collapse spot during sampling;
3 — foundation pit deepening; 4 — traces of ameliorative ploughing on the surface of the palaeosoil; 5–6 — collapse recording,
traces of chips; 7–8 — wastes of spindle whorl production in the workshop collapse
ogy and the use of specific tools. The extracted fill-
ing was subsequently analysed through sieving and
washing, followed by sorting and measurement. This
detailed research approach made the excavation pro-
cess extremely labour-intensive and time-consum-
ing. The same applies even more to all subsequent
stages of laboratory processing, documentation, ar-
chaeometric study, and statistical analysis.
1 2
3 4
5 60 3 cm
0 2 cm7 8
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Fig. 3. Prybytky 1, fragments of pottery from the workshop collapse
Within the workshop filling, 2,590 defective
remains and waste from spindle whorl production
were recorded, along with 49 fragments and blanks
of pectoral crosses and beads, 80 small ceram-
ic fragments (including 13 rim sherds), and two
fragments of twisted glass bracelets. Various-sized
pieces of pyrophyllite slate and chips were sepa-
rately collected. The main group of profiled upper
ceramic fragments found in the filling allows us to
date the workshop to the late 12th — early 13th cen-
turies (fig. 3: 1, 3–13). Some of the recovered rims
may belong to a later period (fig. 3: 2).
Below, we briefly examine each category of
finds that comprised the workshop’s filling.
Mineral Composition of the Workshop Filling
The primary mineral component of the work-
shop filling consists of pyrophyllite chips mixed
with unprocessed fragments and pieces of pyroph-
yllite slate of various sizes, all bearing traces of
processing.
Fragments of Pyrophyllite Slate.
During the excavation, sieving, and sorting pro-
cess, the entire assemblage of pyrophyllite slate
fragments was divided into two size-weight groups:
small and medium-sized fragments (fig. 4: 1, 2).
Large pieces over 10 × 10 cm in size, which formed
the main bulk (3/4 of the filling) of the workshop
excavated at the Nahoriany settlement (Павленко
2005, с. 200, табл. 4), were not recorded in the
workshop at the Prybytky 1. This can be explained
by both the degree of preservation of the workshop
and the fine-grained structure of the white-pink va-
riety of pyrophyllite slate found in the quarries of
the Yamy tract, which does not form large slabs
or blocks of raw material. Additionally, the limit-
ed surface exposures of rare slate varieties like-
ly compelled craftsmen to use the more decorative
and possibly expensive raw material as efficiently
as possible, minimising waste.
The workshop collapse also contained
196 small stones (quartzites, breccia-like con-
glomerates, pebble-like nodules, and unprocessed
1 2
3
4
5
6
78
9
10
11
12 13
14 15 16 17
18 19
0 2 cm
20
21 22 23
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Fig. 4. Prybytky 1: diagram (1) and table (2) showing the distribution of categories of mineral components from the workshop filling
Fig. 5. Prybytky 1, mineral components of the workshop: 1 — fractions of pyrophyllite chips, 2–4 — fragments of pyrophyllite
slate of different sizes; 5 — defective items and spindle whorl blanks with chips in the inner channel, 6 — washing process of
small fractions of chips from the workshop collapse
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flint fragments), with a total weight of approxi-
mately 2.5 kg, along with small fragments of fired
clay and tiny charcoal particles.
Chips.
For the first time, the pyrophyllite chips were ex-
amined as a subject of special scientific interest. In
total, more than 9 kg of fine pyrophyllite chips were
recovered during the washing and sorting of the fill-
ing, accounting for 21.84 % of the total weight of
the workshop’s mineral content (fig. 4: 1, 2).
To better understand the composition of the
chips, a control sample representing 100 % of the
total volume was selected and divided into distinct
size categories using specialised sieves with vari-
ous mesh sizes (fig. 5: 6). The following fractions
of pyrophyllite chips were identified: fine granu-
lar particles, crystals, and flakes up to 1.0–1.5 mm
in size; crystalline and granular slate chips rang-
ing from 1 to 7 mm; slate fragments of various
shapes up to 15 mm in size (fig. 5: 1–4). Addition-
ally, round, hard, semi-transparent grains — pos-
sibly quartz crystals — were identified as a sepa-
rate category.
Waste and Defective Remnants from Spin-
dle Whorl Production.
The production-related artefacts found in the
workshop filling can be divided into defective piec-
es and manufacturing waste. Defective blanks, de-
pending on the stage of production, distinctive fea-
tures, and functionality, are categorised into sever-
al groups: rectangular or square-shaped blank tiles
(“tablets”) (fig. 6: 1–5); blanks with a drilled central
hole (fig. 6: 6–17); blanks with a turned cone on one
or both sides (fig. 6: 18–29); damaged, nearly fin-
ished, and unfinished spindle whorls, as well as their
fragments (fig. 6: 33–37, 40). Manufacturing waste
includes “corners” — fragments of blanks left over
after turning the spindle whorls (fig. 6: 30–32) — and
small cone chips from the spindle whorls (fig. 6: 38–
39). The previously discussed chips also belong to
spindle whorl production waste. For each identified
group of defective items and waste, smaller subcat-
egories with specific volume-weight characteristics
were distinguished. Graphical representations of the
defective finds and the distribution of waste groups
in the workshop filling are provided in the table (ta-
ble 2). Additionally, we attempted to illustrate the
technological processes that generated various cate-
gories of spindle whorl production waste and to pres-
ent their characteristic types of defects (table 2).
Without delving into a detailed analysis of each
artefact group found in the workshop filling or the
spindle whorl manufacturing process (which has
been examined previously, see: Томашевський,
Павленко, Петраускас 2003, с. 135), we high-
light some of the most interesting observations.
Among the production-related artefacts in the
workshop filling, manufacturing waste predomi-
nates, making up 60 % of the total. A small per-
centage (1–2 %) of defective remnants and waste
from each production stage consists of items that
accidentally fell out of the production chain —
possibly lost by the craftsman for various reasons.
Another portion includes items that were inten-
tionally discarded at different stages of produc-
tion. The highest percentage of defective pieces in
the spindle whorl production process at the Pry-
bytky 1 workshop was observed during the grind-
ing of the whorl cone.
The relatively small percentage of blanks found
in the workshop filling at the Prybytky 1 settle-
ment, compared to the excavated workshop in Na-
horiany (Павленко 2005, с. 201, табл. 5), is likely
due to the need for more efficient use of the rarer
raw material.
Additionally, two small fragments of twisted
glass bracelets and six slag fragments were dis-
covered in the workshop filling. However, no iron
objects, including tool fragments, were recorded in
the examined workshop collapse.
Manifestations of Standardisation
Researchers have long noted the high degree of
standardisation in spindle whorls made from pyroph-
yllite slate (e.g.: Янин 1956, с. 189; Розенфельдт
1964, с. 221). The mass quantity of defective blanks
and spindle whorl production waste, observed from
the very beginning of our research on production
settlements, along with their subsequent measure-
ments and archaeometric analysis, confirm a re-
markably high level of standardisation for that time.
One of the primary objectives of our study is to re-
construct the final product, which is largely absent
from the settlement record. Over the entire course
of our research on production settlements of the
Slovechno-Ovruch ridge, only a single intact spin-
dle whorl has been discovered that can be consid-
ered a finished product. Therefore, we aim to iden-
tify the dimensional and proportional standards of
pyrophyllite slate spindle whorls by analysing de-
fective items and production waste.
For statistical analysis and classification, we
selected artefacts from the final stages (IV–V) of
spindle whorl manufacturing — those with a pre-
cisely cut (ground) cone to a certain height, free
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Fig. 6. Prybytky 1, workshop. Samples of semi-finished products, defective products and wastes of spindle whorl production:
1–5 — blank tiles, 6–17 — tiles with a drilled hole; 18–29 — blanks rejected in the process of cone grinding; 30–32 — “corners”;
33–40 — defective spindle whorls and their fragments
1
2
3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18 19 20 21
22
0 2 cm
23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31 32
33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
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from deformation caused by chipping, and with a
clearly defined base surface. The ability to measure
all key parameters was also considered: d — the in-
ner hole diameter, h — cone height, D base — di-
ameters of the base surface (up/down), D max —
maximum diameter of the grinded cone, and α —
the angle of the cone surface relative to the base
surface (fig. 7). As a result, a sample of 172 blanks
was formed for analysis. The parameters of the up-
per and lower cones of defective spindle whorls
and double-sided cone blanks were recorded sepa-
rately, slightly increasing the sample size.
A correlation-regression analysis confirmed the
interrelation between several parameters that de-
termine the spindle whorl’s shape: the cone height,
the angle of the spindle whorl’s cone, the maxi-
mum diameter, and/or the diameters of the flat sur-
faces (bases) of the spindle whorl. However, no
correlation was found between the inner hole di-
ameter and the other parameters.
Through statistical classification, all key param-
eters were grouped into several categories, clear-
ly represented in the graphs as peaks (fig. 8: 1–4).
The parameter distribution ranges are quite broad.
However, a notable trend is observed: three interre-
lated parameters (height, maximum diameter, and
base diameter) share the same peak frequencies (ta-
ble 3). We assume that these three groups reflect the
existence of three size categories of spindle whorls
(fig. 9: 2). At the same time, we acknowledge some
variability within these standardised ranges.
Almost all spindle whorls produced in the
workshop were of a truncated biconical shape.
The production-related material we analysed from
the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge provides no evidence
of barrel-shaped spindle whorl production. There
is no confirmation of an additional technological
process (stage) involving the transformation of
biconical spindle whorls into oval-barrel-shaped
ones within the Ovruch production technology.
We assume that the barrel-shaped spindle whorls
found in Ancient Rus settlements outside the ridge
resulted from functional wear rather than inten-
tional shaping during production.
When determining (or reconstructing) the
workshop’s spindle whorl standards, it is essen-
tial to consider the colour-morphological charac-
teristics of defective blanks and waste (structur-
al and textural features of the raw material). For
the workshop materials, we identified seven col-
our-morphological groups (table 4). Notably, the
vast majority of the workshop’s blanks and waste
are in various shades of pink.
On the Issue of Cutter Reconstruction
The question of tools, particularly cutters,
lathes, and machining units, is one of the most in-
triguing aspects of our research. Solving this issue
through modelling requires an in-depth specialised
analysis and reconstruction that considers the min-
eral properties of the rock, the characteristics of
the metal, and numerous other significant factors.
We are developing various models based on ex-
perimental and computer simulations. This work
is ongoing, and as it progresses, our understand-
ing of the technological process and tools will be
refined and expanded. At present, we can propose
a preliminary reconstruction of certain cutter de-
tails based on observations of artefacts found in
the workshop’s filling.
In attempting to reconstruct the cutter, we pro-
ceed from the assumption that, given the large-
scale production of spindle whorls, the use of a
handheld cutter would have been inefficient. We
can state with a reasonable degree of certainty that,
both in terms of stages and technology, the drilling
of the central hole was separate from the cutting of
the spindle whorl’s cone and preceded it. The cut-
ter likely had a bracket (fig. 9: 1a), which, during
the cone-cutting stage, entered the pre-drilled hole
to ensure precise centring of the spindle whorl.
Current data suggests that the cutter most like-
ly had a single blade. The cutting edge of the cut-
ter’s blade was probably straight, as nearly all
blanks from the relevant production stages exhibit
a smooth, straight-sided cone (fig. 9: 1b).
Observations of the production waste — spe-
cifically the “corner” fragments — suggest that
the cutter blade may have been double-edged
(fig. 9: 1b–c). Additionally, the opposite side of
the cutter might have had a rather complex profile.
It is also possible that the cutter featured a hori-
zontal cutting surface (fig. 9: 1d), although we do
not rule out the possibility of specialised finishing
of the spindle whorl base surfaces. These prelimi-
nary observations lead us to reconsider the recon-
struction of the cutting tool and the spindle whorl
manufacturing process proposed by R. L. Rosen-
feld (Розенфельдт 1964, с. 220, 221, рис. 1).
During the measurement of production waste
and defective items from the workshop filling,
the angle (α) of the ground cone’s surface rela-
tive to the base of the spindle whorl was recorded
and measured statistical classification of precisely
measured angles (a sample of 187 data points) al-
lowed us to determine both the boundary values
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and the most frequently occurring angles. Based
on these ranges and distribution peaks, graphical
reconstructions were produced, illustrating the
most commonly used cutter variations (fig. 10).
Traceological Observations
Tool marks were recorded on approximate-
ly 90 % of all examined spindle whorl remains
and production waste. We distinguish several
groups of these marks: а) various types of mark-
ings at different stages: blank markings (fig. 11: 1),
marking and centering (punching) the drill-
ing point (fig. 11: 2), compass markings for the
spindle whorl cone diameter (fig. 11: 4); b) trac-
es of breaking, chopping, and possibly sawing
the blanks (fig. 11: 3); c) surface treatment traces
on blanks and semi-finished products (polishing,
grinding, cutting, trimming, and shearing marks)
(fig. 11: 5–8); d) drilling traces: concentric marks
on the inner hole walls (fig. 11: 10), signs of drill
play and vibration, and partially drilled holes in
blanks (fig. 11: 9); e) cutter marks on the cone sur-
face of blanks (fig. 11: 12–17) and on the inside of
the “corners” — fragments of blanks left over after
turning the spindle whorls (fig. 11: 11).
Recording and analysing technological trac-
es on defective blanks and spindle whorl produc-
tion waste allow for a detailed reconstruction of
the manufacturing process, clarification of the se-
quence of technological operations, identification
of tool sets, and examination of their structural
features.
Production of Crosses and Beads
During the analysis of the workshop de-
bris at the Prybytky 1 settlement, 27 defec-
tive cross pendants and their fragments were
found (fig. 12: 17–41), along with 16 rhomboi-
dal blanks (fig. 12: 1–16), of which six had par-
tially cut rays (fig. 12: 11–16), five bead blanks
(fig. 12: 42–46), and other production remnants.
Over the course of research at the Prybytky 1 set-
tlement and its surrounding industrial area, the
collection of defective products and production
waste related to crosses and beads has grown to
over 400 items. Archaeometric analysis allowed
us to reconstruct the sequence of manufacturing
operations for crosses (fig. 13), identify the most
common causes of defects, classify cross pendant
types and variations, and determine raw material
preferences (Павленко 2006).
The primary production stages for cross pen-
dants included: preparation of rhomboidal blanks,
marking, cutting of rays, drilling of suspension
holes, polishing, and grinding. Several minor in-
termediate operations might have been employed
at various production stages (fig. 13). The most
common defects occurred during the cutting of
rays, as well as breakage of the upper ray when
drilling tiny suspension holes (up to 2 mm in di-
ameter).
The dimensions of rhomboidal blanks varied,
with edge lengths ranging from 12 to 44 mm and
thicknesses between 5 and 13 mm. The most com-
mon sizes were 12–18 × 16–24 mm, with thick-
nesses of 4–8 mm. Finished crosses also displayed
considerable diversity, ranging from 20 × 29 mm
in length and 10–14 mm in width.
Among the crosses from the settlement, three
main types can be identified. The vast majority
are four-pointed crosses, most of which have a
horizontal bar shorter than the vertical one. Based
on their cross-sections, they can be classified as
square, octagonal, round, or oval (fig. 13). The
second type consists of four-pointed pendant
crosses (five specimens in total), where the hori-
zontal bar is longer than the vertical one, and two
suspension holes are drilled on its arms (rays)
(fig. 13). These crosses were likely intended for
necklaces. The third type — floral crosses (with
rays shaped like stylised flowers) — is repre-
sented by four broken crosses and nine damaged
blanks (fig. 13).
Bead production waste from the workshop is
relatively scarce, providing only a general idea of
the manufacturing sequence: the creation of prism-
shaped (four-, six-, and eight-sided) and cylindri-
cal blanks, drilling of a through-hole along their
length, sawing and cutting the blank into separate
beads, final shaping, and polishing.
For the manufacture of both crosses and
beads, highly decorative varieties of pyrophyllite
slate were selected (fig. 12; 13). These includ-
ed pink, lilac, dark red, and sealing-wax-colour-
ed varieties with a layered structure and round,
hard grain-like inclusions ranging in colour from
white-cream to bluish-grey (fig. 12: 1–2, 15–16,
25, 42; 13; 14: 2, 3). No direct correlation has
been identified between the structural and textur-
al properties of the raw material and the size or
shape of the crosses.
In the workshop debris (four specimens) and
the cultural layer of the settlement (16 specimens),
grey crosses with white veins, bands, and granu-
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referred to in archaeological literature as “kor-
sunchyk crosses”.3
To our knowledge, no comprehensive study
has been conducted on known stone cross pen-
dants (“korsunchyk crosses”) in terms of typolo-
gy or mineralogical composition using specialised
analyses. The issue of “korsunchyk crosses” re-
quires further research based on our findings, al-
lowing for a more systematic distinction between
3 The term “korsunchyk” is used to refer to a certain type of
crosses, both stone and metal, worn on the body. It is quad-
rangular in shape, equilateral or with an elongated verti-
cal arm, with straight or slightly widened ends. In the An-
cient Rus period, the word “korsunchyk” was not used.
The widespread use of the term has been recorded since
the end of the 19th century in the works of antiquity col-
lectors, archaeologists, and art historians. The earliest writ-
ten mention of the term dates back to the mid-19th century,
in a description of the life of the Old Believers communi-
ty in Kyiv. The spread of the term is associated with the
authority of N. P. Kondakov, who suggests that the word
“korsunchyk” indicates the place of production or import of
such artefacts (more details, see: Беляев 2017, с. 531-533,
540-542). In the scientific literature and among archaeolo-
gists, the term is used in at least three meanings known to
the author: 1) to all small body crosses, regardless of mate-
rial, 2) only to body crosses made of stone, 3) to body cross-
es made of decorative varieties of stone (marble, steatite,
porphyry, jadeite, etc.). It is in the latter sense that the term
is used in the text of the article.
Table 2. Prybytky 1, workshop. Distribution of production artefacts, defective products and spindle
whorl manufacturing waste by production stage
lar inclusions (fig. 12: 36–38) were discovered.
These resemble marble in appearance. It is possi-
ble that some of these items underwent deliberate
exposure to high temperatures and/or specific ther-
mochemical or organic reactions (fig. 13). Such
treatment might have been used to create a mar-
ble-like effect 2. Pyrophyllite slate crosses found
at Ancient Rus sites outside the range have been
2 R. Spirģis published two crosses made of natural asphalt
(a mixture of bitumen and quartz grains), found in Riga
and visually very similar to products made of pyrophyllite
slate. The researcher interpreted these artefacts as evidence
of pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He suggested that the grey
marble-like crosses produced in the Ovruch workshops were
imitations of valuable pilgrimage souvenirs (Спиргис 2017,
с. 576-577, рис. 13; Spirģis 2018, pp. 497-498). A. E. Musin
likewise did not rule out the possibility of similar imitations
of pilgrimage insignia: he proposed that some of the
dark green crosses with light green inclusions found in
Novgorod were made from local minerals and imitated
pilgrim crosses carved from crocoite (Мусин 2003, с. 149-
150; 2009, с. 233-234). However, it has been suggested
that small stone pectoral crosses (so-called “korsunchyks”)
were not perceived as pilgrim eulogies in Ancient Rus. The
association with the “relics of holy places” emerged only in
the 18th–19th centuries (Беляев 2017, с. 539, 541). It should
also be noted that there are doubts regarding the existence
of a developed production and wide distribution of marble
crosses in Byzantium, Asia Minor, and the Levant in the
12th–13th centuries (Беляев 2017, с. 538).
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products made within the pyrophyllite slate indus-
try and similar items produced from other miner-
als and regions.
The discovery of “marble-like” pectoral cross-
es within the same production complex as spin-
dle whorl and pyrophyllite slate cross manufactur-
ing waste suggests the possibility of reattributing
some known “korsunchyk crosses” based on fu-
ture mineralogical analysis. This calls for a reas-
sessment of existing collections, especially those
formed outside the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge.
In addition to cross and bead production waste,
a fragment (1/4) of a pyrophyllite slate tile blank
was found in the workshop filling, possibly intend-
ed as an icon or devotional plaque. One surface of
this blank features an engraved cross, while the op-
posite side bears an incised halo outline of a saint’s
face (fig. 14: 2). Other finds include a tile fragment
with a dashed drawing in the form of a ship or tri-
dent (fig. 14: 4), а blank (fig. 14: 6) and a spindle
whorl (fig. 14: 5) with a grid-like marking, frag-
ments of a rectangular tile (fig. 14: 1) and a spindle
whorl (fig. 14: 5) with notches on both surfaces.
From the microregion near Prybytky, two am-
ulets bearing highly intriguing signs and symbols
are also known; they are currently preserved by lo-
cal historians.
Study of Surface Exposures of Pyrophyllite Slate
and Medieval Quarries
The quarries in the Yamy tract represent a sys-
tem of spoil heaps and pits of various sizes, ranging
from 1.0–1.5 to 8–12 m in diameter, with depths of
0.3 to 2.7 m. Large and deep pits are evidently as-
sociated with extraction activities, whereas small-
er ones are linked to prospecting and exploration
of raw materials. The area containing the quarries,
situated on an elevated rocky oak forest with relic
vegetation, covers 300 m2.
On this site, trial excavations were conducted in
five quarry pits, two elevated spoil heaps, and several
areas presumed to contain a cultural layer outside the
pit-spoil complex. The fillings and spoil heaps con-
sist of a dense, compacted mixture of mineral frag-
ments of various sizes (quartzites, pyrophyllite slate),
mineralised loamy podzolic soil, and an extensive
root system of the forest vegetation. These condi-
tions significantly complicated standard archaeolog-
ical excavation procedures, necessitating the use of
specialised tools and techniques. Despite these chal-
lenges, it was possible to determine the typical struc-
ture of fillings and the stratigraphy of such objects.
In the investigated quarries, all possible vari-
eties of pyrophyllite slate were sampled. Along-
side rock fragments (a total of 1,150 specimens
collected), 250 artefacts (18 % of the total) were
found, exhibiting clear traces of primary process-
ing, surface polishing, and cutting of ends and
Fig. 7. Measurement scheme of pyrophyllite slate spindle
whorl parameters.
Table 3. Ranges and peaks of distribution of
main dimensional parameters of blanks
Parameters Distribution
peaks, mm
Distribution
range, mm
Cone height (h) 4 5 6 2.5–12
Base
diameter (D base) 14 16 18 12–22
Max. cone
diameter (D max) 19 22 25 17–31
Hole diameter (d) 6–7 5–8
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edges. In the cultural layer surrounding the quar-
ry pits, tiles were discovered that, in form and
processing technique, resembled spindle whorl
blanks found at production settlements (fig. 15).
This suggests that, in addition to extraction, some
initial processing of raw materials may have tak-
en place on-site.
Research confirmed that surface exposures of
pyrophyllite slate are often accompanied by boul-
ders of red Ovruch quartzite.
The system of medieval quarries in the
Yamy tract is associated with a pyrophyllite slate
deposit explored by a geological field party in the
1930s, 1950s, and 1970s near the village of Rud-
nia-Frankivka. The deposit is located to the south
and west of the village, in the Kamiana Hora tract —
a hill with gentle slopes. Here, pyrophyllite slates lie
close to the surface, beneath a thin layer of alluvial
sands. Geological reports mention small pits from
Fig. 8. Prybytky 1, workshop. Frequency diagrams showing distribution of values for the main parameters of defective blanks:
1 — diameter of the inner hole; 2 — height of the chiselled cone; 3 — diameter of the base surface; 4 — maximum diameter of
the chiselled cone. On the x-axis — value of parameters, on the y-axis — frequency of distribution
Table 4. Colour-morphological and structural-
textural features of raw materials
Groups %
White-light pink, different structure 4.6
Pink, all shades, monotonous 62.8
Pink, all shades, granular inclusions 22.4
Pink, all shades, thinly layered 2.5
Lilac, all shades, different structure 1.2
Violet, all shades, different structure 0.4
‘Jewel-like’, different structure 6.1
Fig. 9. Graphical reconstructions: 1 — variant of a cutter:
а — a bracket, b–d — cutting surfaces (internal, external,
horizontal respectively); 2 — variants of dimension groups
(standards) of finished products
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Fig. 10. Graphical reconstructions of cutter variants based on the distribution of values of the angle (α) of inclination of the
chiselled cone surface relative to the spindle whorl’s base surface : а — range of values; b — number of cases
Fig. 11. Prybytky 1, workshop and site. Tool marks on waste and blanks
which the local population extracted slate for their
own use throughout the 20th century (Жуковський
1937, с. 26-28; Воробьёва, Костенко 1955, с. 10-
11; Поданев, Дадей 1976, с. 71-72). The medieval
workings we discovered in the Yamy tract may not
be the only ones. This area requires an additional
detailed archaeological survey.
Programme for Collecting Information on Artefacts
of Pyrophyllite Slate in Ancient Rus and Europe
In parallel with processing field materials
from the specialised workshop settlements of
the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge, we are systemat-
ically gathering data on workshop finds and evi-
0 2 cm
1
2
3 4 5
6 7 8
9
10
11
12 13 14 15 16 17
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Fig. 12. Prybytky 1, workshop. Samples of blanks and waste from the production of crosses and beads: 1–11 — diamond-shaped
blanks; 12–18 — blanks at the stage of cutting out cross beams (rays); 19–41 — defective crosses; 36–38 — marble-like crosses
(“korsunchyks”); 42–46 — remnants of bead production
dence of production (defective items, waste, and
semi-finished products) of pyrophyllite slate spin-
dle whorls in Ancient Rus settlements beyond the
ridge. A programme is also being carried out to
collect information on the concentration of py-
rophyllite slate spindle whorls in major settlement
centres of Ancient Rus and Europe, as well as on
their discovery in monetary-hoard complexes and
burial sites.
As a subject of scientific interest, spindle
whorl production is self-sufficient; its primary ar-
tefacts (waste and defective items) require clas-
1 2
3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18
19 20
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38
39
40 41
42 43 44
45
46
0 2 cm
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sification and typology, as we have previously
noted. Since the layers of specialised settlements
and workshop fillings predominantly contain de-
fective, damaged, and broken items, it is difficult
to define clear production settlement standards
based on them. However, we have reason to be-
lieve that the analysis and archaeometric study of
a large series of finished products — taking into
account probable changes in spindle whorl shape
and size during use — will allow identification
and examination of standard groups with reason-
able accuracy.
By comparing these size-proportional groups
and mineral-raw material characteristics while
considering the specific technological signa-
tures of workshops, we can distinguish items pro-
duced in particular specialised settlements among
collections of finished spindle whorls. This ap-
proach enables us to reliably trace the path of an
item from the quarry through a specialised set-
tlement workshop to the end user. The materi-
als from the production microregion of Prybyt-
ky — Cherevky (Yamy), due to their unique min-
eral characteristics, offer a rare opportunity for
such archaeological analysis.
To illustrate the correlation possibilities arising
from the study of series of finished products, we
refer to the results of analysing a collection of py-
rophyllite slate spindle whorls from the city and
surrounding areas of medieval Pereiaslavl Ruskyi
(modern-day Pereiaslav in Kyiv Oblast), which we
have previously introduced into scientific circula-
tion (Павленко 2001, 2003).
The examined collection consists of 189 py-
rophyllite slate spindle whorls, of which
163 (86.2 %) were suitable for analysis. Biconi-
cal spindle whorls account for 55.8 % of these
(91 specimens). Among them, a subgroup of
whole, undamaged artefacts with clear parameters
was selected, comprising 60 specimens. As a re-
sult of the analysis, six spindle whorls (10 % of
those examined) were identified as matching the
size and colour-morphological features (raw mate-
rial characteristics) of the standard types tentative-
Fig. 13. Prybytky microregion. Scheme of the sequence of production operations, stages in the manufacturing of crosses from
pyrophyllite slate
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ly established in our study of materials from the
Prybytky 1 workshop settlement.
Using our proposed methodology, collections
of spindle whorls from Kyiv’s Podil (Черновол
2008) and rural settlements of Chernihiv Polissia
(Веремейчик 2008) have been analysed and intro-
duced into scientific discourse.
Unfortunately, most researchers limit their pub-
lications to merely listing the number of pyrophyl-
lite slate spindle whorls found during excavations,
occasionally noting their shapes and individual
dimensions. Although recent publications on An-
cient Rus cities provide some data on the strati-
graphic distribution of pyrophyllite slate spindle
whorls, this information is often insufficient for
compiling complete collections, conducting com-
prehensive analyses, or comparing them with finds
from other Ancient Rus settlements and materials
from the specialised workshops of the Slovech-
no-Ovruch ridge.
Given our experience and the wide distribu-
tion of medieval settlements where pyrophyllite
slate spindle whorls are found (Western Europe —
White Sea — Ural region — Black Sea — Bal-
kan Peninsula), we deemed it appropriate to pro-
pose a simplified, publication-adapted tabular ver-
sion of an electronic database (fig. 16). This allows
for the comparison of collected observations on a
standardised basis.
It should be noted that a number of special-
ised studies have addressed the distribution of
pyrophyllite slate products — primarily spindle
whorls — across a vast area that includes Scan-
dinavia (Андрощук 1999, с. 160-161; Sjöbeck
Fig. 14. Prybytky 1, site: 1, 3–6 — fragments of waste and defective blanks with graffiti; 2 — a fragment of an icon-image
0 2 cm
1
2 3
4
5 6
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Fig. 15. Yamy tract, quarries. Fragments of pyrophyllite slate blanks with traces of surface and facet treatment
0 2 cm
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Fig. 16. Online access (QR code) to the electronic database
2016, pp. 40-44), the Baltic region (Антоне-
вич 1960; Мугуревич 1965, с. 35-42; Shirouk-
hov 2024), Germany (Herrmann 1963; Gabriel
1977, pp. 124-129; 1988, pp. 199-203; Biermann,
Pust, Ansorge 2007), the Czech Republic (Sláma
1990; Kouřil, Přichystal 2022), Poland (Woło-
szyn 2003, mapa 37; 2007, s. 185-187, ryc. 6; Li-
sowska 2013, s. 136-138, 221-224), the Lower
Danube area (Комша 1987; Перхавко 1999; Йо-
тов 2017, 2022, с. 64-68), Chersonesus-Korsun
(Якобсон 1985, с. 118-119, 126; Колесникова
2006, с. 129-130, 132, 140), and Volga Bulgar-
ia (Якимов 1992). The list of authors and publi-
cations is far from exhaustive. These studies ex-
plore the chemical and mineralogical character-
istics of the artefacts and their correspondence
to pyrophyllite slate sourced from the Slovech-
no-Ovruch ridge. They also analyse the presumed
routes of spindle whorl distribution, the chrono-
logical framework of their arrival in various re-
gions, and the socio-economic context in which
the exchange took place, including international
trade networks and the transformation of the sta-
tus of such objects within new cultural and so-
cial settings. However, no comprehensive study
has yet examined spindle whorls using a unified
archaeometric approach and within an integrat-
ed methodological framework for investigating
the distribution and consumption of pyrophyllite
slate products.
Conclusion
The Prybytky — Cherevky industrial microre-
gion occupies an exceptional place among the
monuments of the Ovruch pyrophyllite slate in-
dustry as well as in the settlement system and eco-
nomic structure of the medieval Ovruch region.
Its uniqueness is determined by the deposits and
surface outcrops of highly decorative varieties of
pyrophyllite slate in the vicinity of Cherevky vil-
lage. This quarry, containing rare and exquisite
types of mineral raw materials, was explored and
developed by the medieval population and has no
analogues among similar sites on the Slovech-
no-Ovruch ridge. The exclusivity of the raw ma-
terial defined the specialisation of synchronous
industrial settlements, which focused on the pro-
duction of small pyrophyllite slate ornaments —
pendant crosses, beads, icons, and amulets. Nota-
bly, the settlement complex near Prybytky is cur-
rently the only known site where mass production
of crosses and icons has been documented. The
preserved extraction and production complexes of
the Prybytky — Cherevky microregion are mon-
uments of global significance in the fields of na-
ture, geology, history, archaeology, and technolo-
gy. They require further study and the implemen-
tation of measures for their protection.
The materials obtained from the conducted re-
search on medieval pyrophyllite slate quarries,
production settlements, and workshops — cover-
ing the full production cycle from raw material ex-
traction to the creation of finished products — of-
fer fundamentally new insights into the manufac-
turing process of pyrophyllite slate spindle whorls
and crosses. These findings provide a solid foun-
dation for reconstructing the technology, organi-
sation, and functioning of the medieval Ovruch
pyrophyllite slate industry. Further fieldwork and
analytical studies will allow for refinement and de-
tailed elaboration of our observations and conclu-
sions.
Received 09.03.2025
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Сергій В. Павленко
Молодший науковий співробітник відділу давньоруської та середньовічної археології, Інститут археології НАН Украї-
ни, ORCID: 0000-0002-3138-5746, pavlenko@iananu.org.ua
ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ ВИРОБНИЧОГО РЕГІОНУ ІНДУСТРІЇ ПІРОФІЛІТОВОГО СЛАНЦЮ НА ПІВДНІ
СЛОВЕЧАНСЬКО-ОВРУЧСЬКОГО КРЯЖУ
У статті подано результати досліджень спеціалізованих пам’яток та комплексів виробничого осередку індустрії
пірофілітового сланцю, розташованого на південних відрогах Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу в мікрорегіоні сіл
Прибитки та Черевки. Схарактеризовані видобувні та виробничі пам’ятки мікрорегіону, їх топографічне положення,
коротко подана історія досліджень. Особлива увага зосереджена на характеристиці специфічного культурного шару
виробничих пам’яток, його складу та насиченості. Відображені результати перших археологічних досліджень
середньовічних кар’єрів із видобутку пірофілітового сланцю в урочищі Ями, описана структура копалень,
особливості стратиграфії, розглянуті різновиди мінералів, підтверджена попередня обробка сировини на місці
видобутку.
Основна увага приділена виробничому поселенню Прибитки І, на якому археологічними розкопками
досліджена площа 140 м2, виявлені залишки майстерні з обробки пірофілітового сланцю та виготовленню
пряслиць для прядіння, натільних хрестиків і намистин. Заповнення майстерні містило велику кількість відходів
виробництва, що дало змогу детально простежити послідовність етапів і технологію процесу виготовлення
пряслиць та інших виробів. Запропонований алгоритм розбору, сортування, підрахунку й аналізу заповнення
своєрідного комплексу. Проаналізовані всі категорії мінеральної складової заповнення майстерні: стружка,
мінеральні-сировинні відходи, браковані заготовки, напівфабрикати та відходи виробництва. На основі аналізу
розмірних та кольорово-морфологічних параметрів бракованих виробів та відходів, зроблені спостереження щодо
існування уніфікованих типів пряслиць із виразними пропорційними характеристиками. Це свідчить про певний
прояв стандартизації готової продукції. Спостереження за трасологічними слідами на артефактах дали змогу
визначити набір інструментів, запропонувати реконструкцію різця та розглянути його конструктивні особливості.
Коротко висвітлено виробництво натільних хрестиків. Порушено питання переатрибутації мармуроподібних
хрестиків, традиційно відомих як «корсунчики», як виробів із пірофілітового сланцю.
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2025, № 4 137
Запропонована програма збору інформації про артефакти з пірофілітового сланцю на пам’ятках Середньовічної
Європи, що створить можливість простежити географію поширення продукції та її зв’язок із конкретними
майстернями Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу.
К л ю ч о в і с л о в а: Словечансько-Овруцький кряж, овруцька середньовічна індустрія, пірофілітовий сланець, кар’єри,
виробничі поселення, майстерні, пряслиця, хрестики, намистини.
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| id | arheologia-com-ua-article-435 |
| institution | Chemistry, Physics and Technology of Surface |
| issn | 2616-499X |
| keywords_txt_mv | |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-08-07T01:06:14Z |
| publishDate | 2025 |
| publisher | Institute of Archaeology NAS of Ukraine |
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| resource_txt_mv | arheologiacomua/d1/91760f1dbb5603523d9c0899c97433d1.pdf |
| spelling | arheologia-com-ua-article-4352025-12-08T01:03:51Z Study of the Industrial Region of the Pyrophyllite Slate Industry in the South of the Slovechno-Ovruch Ridge Дослідження виробничого регіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу Pavlenko , S. V. Slovechno-Ovruch mountain ridge, Ovruch medieval industry, pyrophyllite slate, production settlements, quarries, workshops, spindle whorls, crosses, beads. Словечансько-Овруцький кряж, овруцька середньовічна індустрія, пірофілітовий сланець, кар’єри, виробничі поселення, майстерні, пряслиця, хрестики, намистини. This article presents the results of research on medieval quarries and specialised settlements engaged in the processing of pyrophyllite slate, conducted in the Slovechno-Ovruch ridge. The study characterises the pyrophyllite slate industry sites in the microregion of Prybytky — Cherevky, examines the composition of the cultural layer of settlements and workshop deposits, and describes the methods and approaches used in their investigation. All categories of production artefacts are analysed, including chips, mineral raw material remains, defective blanks, semi-finished products, and production waste from the production of spindle whorls, pectoral crosses, and beads made of pyrophyllite slate. Tool traces on production artefacts are also considered. У статті подано результати досліджень спеціалізованих пам’яток та комплексів виробничого осередку індустрії пірофілітового сланцю, розташованого на південних відрогах Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу в мікрорегіоні сіл Прибитки та Черевки. Схарактеризовані видобувні та виробничі пам’ятки мікрорегіону, їх топографічне положення, коротко подана історія досліджень. Особлива увага зосереджена на характеристиці специфічного культурного шару виробничих пам’яток, його складу та насиченості. Відображені результати перших археологічних досліджень середньовічних кар’єрів із видобутку пірофілітового сланцю в урочищі Ями, описана структура копалень, особливості стратиграфії, розглянуті різновиди мінералів, підтверджена попередня обробка сировини на місці видобутку.Основна увага приділена виробничому поселенню Прибитки І, на якому археологічними розкопками досліджена площа 140 м2, виявлені залишки майстерні з обробки пірофілітового сланцю та виготовленню пряслиць для прядіння, натільних хрестиків і намистин. Заповнення майстерні містило велику кількість відходів виробництва, що дало змогу детально простежити послідовність етапів і технологію процесу виготовлення пряслиць та інших виробів. Запропонований алгоритм розбору, сортування, підрахунку й аналізу заповнення своєрідного комплексу. Проаналізовані всі категорії мінеральної складової заповнення майстерні: стружка, мінеральні-сировинні відходи, браковані заготовки, напівфабрикати та відходи виробництва. На основі аналізу розмірних та кольорово-морфологічних параметрів бракованих виробів та відходів, зроблені спостереження щодо існування уніфікованих типів пряслиць із виразними пропорційними характеристиками. Це свідчить про певний прояв стандартизації готової продукції. Спостереження за трасологічними слідами на артефактах дали змогу визначити набір інструментів, запропонувати реконструкцію різця та розглянути його конструктивні особливості. Коротко висвітлено виробництво натільних хрестиків. Порушено питання переатрибутації мармуроподібних хрестиків, традиційно відомих як «корсунчики», як виробів із пірофілітового сланцю.Запропонована програма збору інформації про артефакти з пірофілітового сланцю на пам’ятках Середньовічної Європи, що створить можливість простежити географію поширення продукції та її зв’язок із конкретними майстернями Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу. Institute of Archaeology NAS of Ukraine 2025-12-02 Article Article application/pdf https://arheologia.com.ua/index.php/arheologia/article/view/435 10.15407/archaeologyua2025.04.114 Arheologia; No 4 (2025): Arheologia; 114-138 Археологія ; № 4 (2025): Археологія; 114-138 Археология; № 4 (2025): Arheologia; 114-138 2616-499X 0235-3490 uk https://arheologia.com.ua/index.php/arheologia/article/view/435/438 Copyright (c) 2025 Arheologia https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode.en |
| spellingShingle | Словечансько-Овруцький кряж овруцька середньовічна індустрія пірофілітовий сланець кар’єри виробничі поселення майстерні пряслиця хрестики намистини. Pavlenko , S. V. Дослідження виробничого регіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу |
| title | Дослідження виробничого регіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу |
| title_alt | Study of the Industrial Region of the Pyrophyllite Slate Industry in the South of the Slovechno-Ovruch Ridge |
| title_full | Дослідження виробничого регіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу |
| title_fullStr | Дослідження виробничого регіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу |
| title_full_unstemmed | Дослідження виробничого регіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу |
| title_short | Дослідження виробничого регіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні Словечансько-Овруцького кряжу |
| title_sort | дослідження виробничого регіону індустрії пірофілітового сланцю на півдні словечансько-овруцького кряжу |
| topic | Словечансько-Овруцький кряж овруцька середньовічна індустрія пірофілітовий сланець кар’єри виробничі поселення майстерні пряслиця хрестики намистини. |
| topic_facet | Slovechno-Ovruch mountain ridge Ovruch medieval industry pyrophyllite slate production settlements quarries workshops spindle whorls crosses beads. Словечансько-Овруцький кряж овруцька середньовічна індустрія пірофілітовий сланець кар’єри виробничі поселення майстерні пряслиця хрестики намистини. |
| url | https://arheologia.com.ua/index.php/arheologia/article/view/435 |
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