Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel
Nuclear-grade 316LN stainless steel was subjected to single and double compressions at 1173–1473 K and strain rates of 0.01–10 s⁻¹. The dynamic and postdeformation recrystallization was investigated through analysis of the stress–strain curves and microstructure evolution. The thermal deformation eq...
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Інститут проблем міцності ім. Г.С. Писаренко НАН України
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irk-123456789-1732702020-11-29T01:26:59Z Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel Zhang, R.H. Wang, Z.H. Shi, Z.P. Wang, B. Fu, W.T. Научно-технический раздел Nuclear-grade 316LN stainless steel was subjected to single and double compressions at 1173–1473 K and strain rates of 0.01–10 s⁻¹. The dynamic and postdeformation recrystallization was investigated through analysis of the stress–strain curves and microstructure evolution. The thermal deformation equation and the quantitative relationships between the critical stress for the initiation of dynamic recrystallization and the Zener–Hollomon parameter, Z, and between the dynamic recrystallization grain size D and Z were derived. Dynamic recrystallization developed through an ordinary mechanism at low Z values and through a necklace mechanism at high Z values, with a critical Z value of about 3.6 10¹⁶ . At 1273–1473 K, softening of 316LN stainless steel after deformation was characterized by an Avrami-type equation, where the Avrami parameter, n, has no appreciable temperature dependence, and an average value of n and the activation energy, Qrex , were 0.68 and 129 kJ/mol, respectively. Нержавеющая сталь 316LN ядерного класса подвергалась одно- и двукратному сжатию при 1173...1473 К и скорости деформации 0,01...10 с⁻¹. Динамическая и постдеформационная рекристаллизация изучалась с помощью анализа зависимости деформации от напряжения и развития микроструктуры. Были выведены уравнение тепловой деформации и количественные зависимости между критическим напряжением инициирования динамической рекристаллизации и параметром Зенера Холломона Z, а также между размером зерна D при динамической рекристаллизации и Z. Динамическая рекристаллизация развивалась по обычному механизму при низких значениях Z и по механизму ожерелья при высоких значениях Z, при критическом значении Z примерно 3 6 10¹⁶. При 1273...1473 К разупрочнение нержавеющей стали 316LN после деформирования описывается уравнением Аврами, где параметр Аврами n не проявляет выраженной температурной зависимости, а его среднее значение и энергия активации Qrex составляют 0,68 и 129 кДж/моль соответственно. 2015 Article Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel / R.H. Zhang, Z.H. Wang, Z.P. Shi, B. Wang, W.T. Fu // Проблемы прочности. — 2015. — № 1. — С. 109-115. — Бібліогр.: 15 назв. — англ. 0556-171X http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/173270 539.4 en Проблемы прочности Інститут проблем міцності ім. Г.С. Писаренко НАН України |
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Научно-технический раздел Научно-технический раздел Zhang, R.H. Wang, Z.H. Shi, Z.P. Wang, B. Fu, W.T. Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel Проблемы прочности |
| description |
Nuclear-grade 316LN stainless steel was subjected to single and double compressions at 1173–1473 K and strain rates of 0.01–10 s⁻¹. The dynamic and postdeformation recrystallization was investigated through analysis of the stress–strain curves and microstructure evolution. The thermal deformation equation and the quantitative relationships between the critical stress for the initiation of dynamic recrystallization and the Zener–Hollomon parameter, Z, and between the dynamic recrystallization grain size D and Z were derived. Dynamic recrystallization developed through an ordinary mechanism at low Z values and through a necklace mechanism at high Z values, with a critical Z value of about 3.6 10¹⁶ . At 1273–1473 K, softening of 316LN stainless steel after deformation was characterized by an Avrami-type equation, where the Avrami parameter, n, has no appreciable temperature dependence, and an average value of n and the activation energy, Qrex , were 0.68 and 129 kJ/mol, respectively. |
| format |
Article |
| author |
Zhang, R.H. Wang, Z.H. Shi, Z.P. Wang, B. Fu, W.T. |
| author_facet |
Zhang, R.H. Wang, Z.H. Shi, Z.P. Wang, B. Fu, W.T. |
| author_sort |
Zhang, R.H. |
| title |
Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel |
| title_short |
Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel |
| title_full |
Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel |
| title_fullStr |
Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel |
| title_sort |
dynamic and postdeformation recrystallization of nuclear-grade 316ln stainless steel |
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Інститут проблем міцності ім. Г.С. Писаренко НАН України |
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2015 |
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Научно-технический раздел |
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http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/173270 |
| citation_txt |
Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN Stainless Steel / R.H. Zhang, Z.H. Wang, Z.P. Shi, B. Wang, W.T. Fu // Проблемы прочности. — 2015. — № 1. — С. 109-115. — Бібліогр.: 15 назв. — англ. |
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Проблемы прочности |
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2025-07-15T09:52:42Z |
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2025-07-15T09:52:42Z |
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| fulltext |
UDC 539.4
Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization of Nuclear-Grade 316LN
Stainless Steel
R. H. Zhang,
a,b
Z. H. Wang,
a,c
Z. P. Shi,
c
B. Wang,
a
and W. T. Fu
a,1
a State Key Laboratory of Metastable Materials Science and Technology, Yanshan University,
Qinhuangdao, China
b Hebei Province Key Laboratory of Modern Metallurgy, College of Metallurgy and Energy, Hebei
United University, Tangshan, China
c Key Laboratory of Advanced Forging & Stamping Technology and Science, Ministry of Education
of China, College of Mechanical Engineering Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, China
1 wtfu@ysu.edu.cn; zrh1980@126.com
Nuclear-grade 316LN stainless steel was subjected to single and double compressions at 1173–1473 K
and strain rates of 0.01–10 s�1. The dynamic and postdeformation recrystallization was investigated
through analysis of the stress–strain curves and microstructure evolution. The thermal deformation
equation and the quantitative relationships between the critical stress for the initiation of dynamic
recrystallization and the Zener–Hollomon parameter, Z, and between the dynamic recrystallization
grain size D and Z were derived. Dynamic recrystallization developed through an ordinary
mechanism at low Z values and through a necklace mechanism at high Z values, with a critical Z
value of about 3.6 1016� . At 1273–1473 K, softening of 316LN stainless steel after deformation was
characterized by an Avrami-type equation, where the Avrami parameter, n, has no appreciable
temperature dependence, and an average value of n and the activation energy, Qrex, were 0.68 and
129 kJ/mol, respectively.
Keywords: 316LN stainless steel, hot deformation, dynamic recrystallization (DRX), post-
deformation recrystallization.
Introduction. Type 316 stainless steels are widely used in food, chemical, and energy
industries owing to their good physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. Since steels
of this grade arevery sensitive to intergranular stress corrosion, their carbon content needs
to be slightly reduced. To compensate for the associated loss in strength, nitrogen is added
to the steel, producing 316LN stainless steel with excellent pitting and stress corrosion
resistance, good creep resistance, and high-temperature mechanical properties. This steel is
widely applied in many industrial components, such as vessels, pipes, grid plates, support
structures, etc. These components are mainly manufactured using hot-rolling and hot-
forging processes. Through thermal deformation, not only the required shape but also the
desired fine structure can be obtained.
However, 316LN stainless steel essentially belongs to the class of coarse-grained
steels. Coarse and mixed grained structures, which cannot be eliminated by thermal
treatment, are usually formed in the hot-working process. Therefore, being able to exert
microstructure control in the hot-working regime is very important for manufacturing
316LN stainless steel products. With respect to microstructure control, the dynamic
evolution of the microstructure [1, 2] and the static recrystallization behavior [3] have been
investigated, and a recrystallization model has been developed [4], which was successfully
applied to hot bar rolling. 316LN stainless steel contains relatively less carbon and more
nitrogen than the 316 type, which leads to significant differences in the recrystallization
behavior of these two steel types Although the flow behavior of 316LN stainless steel has
previously been investigated, the recrystallization behavior has not yet been reported.
© R. H. ZHANG, Z. H. WANG, Z. P. SHI, B. WANG, W. T. FU, 2015
ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìû ïðî÷íîñòè, 2015, ¹ 1 109
The present work aims to examine the dynamic recrystallization characteristics during
hot deformation, and the postdeformation recrystallization behavior (meta-dynamic and
static recrystallization) of nuclear grade 316LN stainless steel, in order to establish the
optimal hot-working conditions, i.e., the deformation temperature, strain rate, and strain
and pass interval time.
1. Experimental Procedure. The material under study is 316LN steel with the
chemical composition of 0.02 C, 16.73 Cr, 12.58 Ni, 0.1 N, 2.58 Mo, 1.63 Mn, 0.61 Si and
bal. Fe. It was melted in an arc furnace followed by refinement and casting in vacuum. The
compression test specimens with height of 15 mm and diameter of 8 mm were cut from the
forged ingot. A Gleeble3500 thermal/mechanical simulator was employed for hot
compression tests. The specimens were preheated at a rate of 10 K/s to 1523 K (1250�C)
(about 10 min), which led to an initial grain size which was approximative 110 �m, and
then cooled to the test temperature at a rate of 10 K/s, at which point the specimens were
held for 5 s prior to deformation. Following this pretreatment, single-compression tests
were carried out at temperatures between 1173 and 1473 K (1173, 1273, 1373, and 1473 K)
at strain rates of 0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 s�1. After being deformed to a strain of 1.2, the
specimens were immediately quenched in water. Double-compression tests were performed
at temperatures of 1173, 1273, 1373, and 1473 K at a strain rate of 0.1 s�1, with the first
loading performed at a strain of 0.3. Following the first loading, the specimens were
unloaded and held at their deformation temperature for 0.5–1200 s, before a second loading
to a strain of 0.6 was performed at the same strain rate. The microstructure was observed
after the deformed specimens being cut parallel to the compressed direction followed by
etching for 10–30 s with aqua regia.
2. Results and Discussion.
2.1. Dynamic Recrystallization Characteristics.
2.1.1. Flow Behavior of Single Compression. Figure 1 shows the single-compression
flow curves of specimens deformed between 1173–1473 K and at strain rates of 0.1 and 10
s�1. It can be seen that, at the early stages of deformation, the peak stress, peak strain and
work hardening rate all increase with increasing strain rate and decreasing temperature.
At 0.1 s�1, the material exhibits softening after attaining a peak value and then reaches a
plateau (Fig. 1a). However, at 10 s�1, softening is not apparent. The peak stress of the
316LN steel used in this study is comparable to that reported in [5]; both values are about
10% higher than that of 316 stainless steel [2]. It should be note that the flow behavior of
316LN steel can be influenced by DRX, deformation heat, cracking, and flow instability.
R. H. Zhang, Z. H. Wang, Z. P. Shi, et al.
110 ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìû ïðî÷íîñòè, 2015, ¹ 1
Fig. 1. Single-compression flow curves of 316LN stainless steel deformed at different strain rates:
0.1 (a) and 10 s�1 (b).
a b
2.1.2. Hot Deformation Equation and Z Parameter. When the metal is deformed at
elevated temperatures [6], the relationship between the experimental temperature, strain
rate, and peak stress i.e., the hot deformation equation, can be described as follows:
� [sinh( )] exp ( ),� �� �A Q RTn
(1)
where A and � are material constants, n is the stress exponent, � is the peak stress, Q
is the hot deformation activation energy, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute
temperature. Using the linear regression method, as described elsewhere [7], each
parameter can be obtained: A �956 1016. , � 0.006, n 6.08, and Q 451kJ/mol. The
value of Q is higher than that reported for 316 stainless steel (398 [2] and 413.8 kJ/mol
[4]). Thus, the addition of nitrogen increases the hot deformation activation energy, since
increasing interstitial atoms may restrain the dislocation glide. The hot deformation equation
and Z parameter of 316LN stainless steel deformed at temperatures ranging from 1173 to
1473 K at strain rates between 0.01–10 s�1 can be expressed as follows:
� . [sinh ( . )] exp ( ),.� � � �956 10 0006 45100016 6 08 RT (2)
Z RT � exp ( ).� 451000 (3)
2.1.3. Critical Stress for DRX. Poliak [8] and Najafizadeh [9] verified that the
initiation of DRX is effected by the inflection in the curve of the strain hardening rate
vs.
flow stress �. The simplest equation with an inflection point, which fits the experimental
�� data from zero to the peak stress, is
� � � � � �A B C D3 2 , (4)
where
� � d d , A, B, C , and D are constants for a given set of deformation conditions.
Derivation of Eq. (4) yields
d
d
A B C
�
� � � �3 22 . (5)
The minimum value of this second-order equation corresponds to the critical stress,
i.e., � c B A � 3 . Based on the flow data of 316LN stainless steel in Fig. 1 and Eq. (5), the
relationship between the critical stress for the ln( )Z and initiation of DRX can be obtained.
Using a linear regression, the following quantitative relationship between � c and ln( )Z
can be obtained
� c Z �159 495. ln( ) (MPa). (6)
2.1.4. DRX Structure. Microstructure of 316LN stainless steel loaded to a strain of 1.2
at a strain rate of 0.01 s�1 between 1173–1473 K is shown in Fig. 2. At 1173 K, small
grains appear around elongated grains (Fig. 2a), which is referred to as a “necklace
structure” or “necklace DRX” [10]. Both the recrystallization fractions and grain sizes of
316LN stainless steel deformed at 1273 K are higher than those deformed at 1173 K. In
addition, the characteristics of the necklace structure are not clear and the microstructure
belongs to the conventional DRX type (Fig. 2b). When the deformation temperature is
1373 K, the steel is completely recrystallized, the grain boundaries have a certain curvature,
and numerous twins appear. At 1473 K (1200�C), full recrystallization also occurs, while
the average grain size increases to 37 �m (Fig. 2d).
Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization ...
ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìû ïðî÷íîñòè, 2015, ¹ 1 111
Based on Fig. 2 and other microstructure observations, it can be concluded that DRX
is developed by the conventional mechanism (DRX grains nucleate at triple junctions) at
low Z values and by the necklace mechanism at high Z values. Here the critical Z value is
about 36 1016. � , which is higher than that of 316 stainless steel [2]. By using the linear
intercept method, the dependence of the DRX grain size on the deformation conditions can
be obtained. The higher the Z value, the finer the new grain. Under the same deformation
conditions, the D value of 316LN stainless steel is smaller than that of 316 stainless steel
[2]. The relationship between D and the parameters Z and A can be expressed as
follows:
D Z A �232 0 22. ( ) . (�m). (7)
2.2. Postdeformation Recrystallization Behavior.
2.2.1. Flow Behavior of Double Compression. The double-compression flow curves
of 316LN stainless steel loaded at 1173 and 1373 K are shown in Fig. 3. It can be found
that the longer the interpass time, the lower the yield stress of the second deformation, i.e.,
the softening fraction becomes larger. In addition, the softening rate becomes higher with
deformation temperature. Sinse the first compression is close to the peak strain, the
softening mechanisms include static and meta-dynamic recrystallization [11].
2.2.2. Postdeformation Softening Behavior. The softening fraction (i.e., the
recrystallization factor) X can be calculated by the data from the double-compression
tests, as shown in Eq. (8) [12]:
X
�
�
� �
� �
2 3
2 1
, (8)
112 ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìû ïðî÷íîñòè, 2015, ¹ 1
Fig. 2. Microstructures of 316LN stainless steel deformed at a rate of 0.01 s�1 to a strain of 1.2 at
different temperatures: (a) 1173 K (900�C); (b) 1273 K (1000�C); (c) 1373 K (1100�C); (d) 1473 K
(1200�C).
R. H. Zhang, Z. H. Wang, Z. P. Shi, et al.
where �1 is the yield stress of the first loading, � 2 is the flow stress at the end of the first
loading, and � 3 is the yield stress of the second loading. Figure 4 shows the softening
fraction data as a function of holding time for the specimens loaded at different temperatures
to a strain of 0.3. It can be seen that the softening fraction curve is S-shaped above 1273 K
(1000�C). However, a plateau appears at 1173 K (900�C), which means that there is almost
no softening for a certain period. This phenomenon can be attributed to Cr2N precipitation
[13], where the onset and offset of the plateau represent the beginning and termination of
precipitation, respectively.
2.2.3. Postdeformation Recrystallization Characteristics. According to the S-shaped
pattern of the softening fraction curves (Fig. 4), the Avrami-type equation for this behavior
[11] could be expressed by the following formula:
X t t n � �1 0693 0 5exp[ . ( ) ],. (9)
where t is the interpass time, t0 5. is the time corresponding to a softening fraction of 0.5,
and n is the Avrami exponent, which can be determined from the gradient of a plot of
ln(ln[ ( )])1 1� X against ln .t It has been reported that the Avrami exponent in microalloyed
steels can be affected by the deformation parameters [14, 15]. However, in austenitic
ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìû ïðî÷íîñòè, 2015, ¹ 1 113
a b
Fig. 3. Double-compression flow curves of 316LN stainless steel loaded at 1173 K (900�C) (a) and
1373 K (1100�C) (b).
Fig. 4. Softening fraction as a function of holding time for 316LN stainless steel tested at different
temperatures.
Dynamic and Postdeformation Recrystallization ...
stainless steels, it was found that the deformation parameters do not significantly affect the
value of n [11, 16]. In the present study, the results do not show any strong effect of
temperature on the n value, and the average value determined was 0.68. Therefore, at the
temperatures from 1273 to 1473 K, the kinetic equation for postdeformation recrystallization
of 316LN stainless steel is
X t t � �1 0693 0 5
0 68exp[ . ( ) ]..
.
(10)
The activation energy for postdeformation recrystallization can be obtained, as
described in [17]. For 316LN steel tested between 1173–1473 K (900– 1200�C) and at a
strain rate of 0.1 s�1, Qrex is 129 kJ/mol, which is slightly lower than the static
recrystallization (137 kJ/mol) and meta-dynamic recrystallization (155 kJ/mol) energies of
316 stainless steel deformed in the same temperature range [15].
Conclusions. Single- and double-compression tests were performed for nuclear-grade
316LN stainless steel, and its dynamic and post-crystallization deformation behavior was
investigated. through analysis of the stress–strain curves and microstructure evolution. It
was found that DRX occurred by the conventional mechanism at low Z values and by the
necklace mechanism at high Z values. The quantitative relationship between D and Z was
also determined. In the temperature range 1273–1473 K, the softening behavior of the steel
after deformation is characterized by an Avrami-type equation.
Acknowledgments. The project is supported by the Natural Science Foundation –
Steel and Iron Foundation of Hebei Province (Grant No. E2013203110).
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Received 20. 10. 2014
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