Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment
In the article, the first results of paleopedological, palynological and archaeological research of the Konsulivka hillfort of the 1st century BC — 2nd century AD, located on the right bank of the Dnipro River, near Respublikanets village, Beryslav district, Kherson Oblast, are presented. Accor...
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Інститут археології НАН України
2023
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| Цитувати: | Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment / N.O. Gavrylyuk, O.A. Sirenko, Zh.M. Matviishyna, M. Matera // Археологія. — 2023. — № 4. — С. 21-36. — Бібліогр.: 32 назв. — англ. |
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irk-123456789-1995932024-10-17T20:29:20Z Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment Gavrylyuk, N.O. Sirenko, O.A. Matviishyna, Zh.M. Matera, M. Статті In the article, the first results of paleopedological, palynological and archaeological research of the Konsulivka hillfort of the 1st century BC — 2nd century AD, located on the right bank of the Dnipro River, near Respublikanets village, Beryslav district, Kherson Oblast, are presented. According to the data of interdisciplinary research, the characteristics of the ancient soil are given, and conclusions are drawn about the peculiarities of vegetation development in the area of the Konsulivka hillfort at the turn of the era. Представлено результати палеопедологічних, палінологічних та археологічних досліджень Консулівського городища, розташованого на правому березі Дніпра біля с. Республіканець Бериславського р-ну Херсонської обл. Геоархеологічні дослідження на пам’ятках Нижноього Подніпров’я здійснено вперше. Мета цієї роботи представити перші результати геоархеологічних досліджень (палеопедологічних, палінологічних та археологічних) у комплексі; показати перспективність таких робіт на античних пам’ятках. У вересні 2021 р. проводилися розкопки північно-західного кута великої фортеці Консулівського городища. Виявлено залишки кам’яної оборонної стіни близько та кутовий в’їзд на городище. Здійснено п’ять палеопедологічних розчисток на городищі та за його межами. Виявлено законсервованим античний грунт, що датується І ст. до н.е. — ІІ ст. н.е. і характеризується меншим вмістом гумусу, має гарно виражений Pk. Особливістю античного ґрунту є наявність ущільненішого буро-пальового горизонту в основі. Він близький до каштанових ґрунтів сучасної України. Палепедологічними дослідженнями підтверджено, що культурний шар городища складається з трьох прошарків, тобто Консулівське городище є багатошаровою пам’яткою, про що свідчить і археологічна стратиграфія. Палінологічні дослідження зразків містять інформацію про рослинність, синхронну виникненню городища та початку господарського використання його довкілля. Зміна рослинної групи на іншу пов’язується не тільки з природним, але з антропогенним впливом. Отже, комплексний аналіз довкілля підтвердив багатошаровий характер культурного шару городища. Аналіз рослинності свідчить про наявність у природному оточенні Консулівського городища ознак пасовищної дигресії. Перші міждисциплінарні дослідження на Консулівському городищі показали перспективність таких робіт на археологічних пам’ятках античності. 2023 Article Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment / N.O. Gavrylyuk, O.A. Sirenko, Zh.M. Matviishyna, M. Matera // Археологія. — 2023. — № 4. — С. 21-36. — Бібліогр.: 32 назв. — англ. 0235-3490 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15407/arheologia 2023.04.021 http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/199593 [903.4:504](477.72)"638" en Археологія Інститут археології НАН України |
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Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
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English |
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Статті Статті |
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Статті Статті Gavrylyuk, N.O. Sirenko, O.A. Matviishyna, Zh.M. Matera, M. Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment Археологія |
| description |
In the article, the first results of paleopedological,
palynological and archaeological research of the
Konsulivka hillfort of the 1st century BC — 2nd
century AD, located on the right bank of the Dnipro
River, near Respublikanets village, Beryslav
district, Kherson Oblast, are presented. According
to the data of interdisciplinary research, the
characteristics of the ancient soil are given, and
conclusions are drawn about the peculiarities
of vegetation development in the area of the
Konsulivka hillfort at the turn of the era. |
| format |
Article |
| author |
Gavrylyuk, N.O. Sirenko, O.A. Matviishyna, Zh.M. Matera, M. |
| author_facet |
Gavrylyuk, N.O. Sirenko, O.A. Matviishyna, Zh.M. Matera, M. |
| author_sort |
Gavrylyuk, N.O. |
| title |
Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment |
| title_short |
Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment |
| title_full |
Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment |
| title_fullStr |
Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment |
| title_sort |
paleoecological description of the konsulivka hillfort and its environment |
| publisher |
Інститут археології НАН України |
| publishDate |
2023 |
| topic_facet |
Статті |
| url |
http://dspace.nbuv.gov.ua/handle/123456789/199593 |
| citation_txt |
Paleoecological Description of the Konsulivka Hillfort and its Environment / N.O. Gavrylyuk, O.A. Sirenko, Zh.M. Matviishyna, M. Matera // Археологія. — 2023. — № 4. — С. 21-36. — Бібліогр.: 32 назв. — англ. |
| series |
Археологія |
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2024-10-18T04:02:09Z |
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2024-10-18T04:02:09Z |
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| fulltext |
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2023, № 4 21
УДК[903.4:504](477.722)"638" https://doi.org/10.15407/arheologia 2023.04.021
* GAVRYLIUK Nadiia Oksentiivna ― DSc. in Historical
Sciences, Leading Research Fellow at the Institute of
Archaeology of the National Academy of Science of
Ukraine, the Classical Archaeology Department ORCID:
0000-0002-2369-5701, gavrylyuk_na@ukr.net
SIRENKO Olena Ananiivna ― DSc. in Geological Scien-
ces, Chief Research Fellow, Department of Stratigraphy
and Paleontology of Cenozoic Sediments, the Institute of
Geological Sciences of the National Academy of Sciences
of Ukraine, ORCID: 0000-0002-8019-6407, o_sirenko@
ukr.net
MATVIISHYNA Zhanna Mykolaivna ― DSc. in
Geographical Sciences, Leading Research Fellow, Head
of the Paleography Department, the Institute of Geography
of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine, ORCID:
0000-0003-1412-7232, zhmatv.paleo@gmail.com
MATERA Marcin ― DSc. in Archaeology, the University
of Warsaw, the Faculty of Archaeology, ORCID: 0000-
0003-4913-0749, marcinmatera@uw.edu.pl
PALEOECOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF KONSULIVKA
HILLFORT AND ITS ENVIRONMENT
©N. O. GAVRYLIUK, O. A. SIRENKO,
Zh. M. MATVIISHYNA, M. MATERA* 2023
In the article, the first results of paleopedological,
palynological and archaeological research of the
Konsulivka hillfort of the 1st century BC — 2nd
century AD, located on the right bank of the Dnipro
River, near Respublikanets village, Beryslav
district, Kherson Oblast, are presented. According
to the data of interdisciplinary research, the
characteristics of the ancient soil are given, and
conclusions are drawn about the peculiarities
of vegetation development in the area of the
Konsulivka hillfort at the turn of the era.
K e y w o r d s: Steppe region, Dnipro River lower
region, ancient Greek period, geoarchaeological
research, paleopedological research, palynological
data, pasture digression.
The Konsulivka hillfort is one of 14 hillforts and
one settlement (archaeological sites of nation-
al significance) of the late Hellenistic period that
emerged on both banks of the Dnipro River in the
area from the beginning of the repids in the north
to the beginning of the Dnipro-Buh estuary in the
south (fig. 1). The first information about these
sites appeared in the second half of the 19th cen-
tury (Чирков 1867, с. 546-550). The first scientific
description of the Lower Dnipro settlements was
created by the Founder and Director of the Kher-
son Regional Museum (Гошкевич 1913, с. 118-
133). Later, excavations of some of the settlements
and cemeteries had begun (Ebert 1913, S. 80-148.;
Schliz 1913, S. 148-157; Фабриціус 1930, с. 30-
31). Particular interest in the settlements of the
Lower Dnipro region arose in preparation for the
construction of the Kakhovka Reservoir. Explora-
tions and excavations of some of them were car-
ried out by the staff of the Institute of Archaeology
of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR
under the direction of A. V. Dobrovolskyi. The
results of the shores study of the future reservoir
were published in the 1960s (Добровольський
1960, с. 141-166; Виєзжев 1960, с. 166-175; Ша-
пошнікова 1960, c. 176-180; Бреде 1960, с. 191-
204; Ветштейн 1960, с. 204-210; Вязьмітіна
1962, с. 14-21). The condition of the monuments
had been monitored by the staff of the Kherson Re-
gional Museum (Абікулова 1994, с. 78-84).
The settlements were located on the high slopes
of the right bank of the Dnipro and the rocky
outcrops of the left bank that looked like fortresses
with walls and towers built on defensive ramparts.
One of these fortresses was the Konsulivka hillfort,
located on the northern outskirts of Respublikanets
village, Beryslav region, Kherson Oblast. The site
has been investigated by the Ukrainian-Polish
Expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of
the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
(headed by DSc. N. O. Gavryliuk), the Faculty of
Archaeology of the University of Warsaw (headed
by DSc. M. Matera) and the National Reserve
“Khortytsia”. The expedition has been working at
the site since 2014 and the results of archaeological
research are regularly published (e.g. Matera,
Nykonenko, Gavrylyuk, Lech 2022, p. 612-633).
It has been established that the Konsulivka hill-
fort consists of two parts: the Citadel, with an area
of 0.25 hectares, and the Great Fortress, with an
area of 3.5 hectares (Никоненко 2015, с. 95). Both
parts are surrounded by stone walls with fortified
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2023, № 422
towers without interior space. The fortress walls
of both the main part of the settlement and its cita-
del are double-faced structures with a rubble filling
consisting of medium and small stones mixed to-
gether with clay.
In September 2021, excavations were carried
out in the north-western corner of the Great Fortress
of the Konsulivka hillfort (fig. 2). The remains of a
stone defensive wall about 2 m wide were found,
which was severely damaged by modern household
works. A corner entrance to the settlement was also
discovered. The entrance is flanked by a stone wall,
preserved in four to five layers of bedding made of
roughly processed blocks of Sarmatian shell lime-
stone, which was quarried nearby from the Dni-
pro terrace deposits. The height of the structure is
about 1 m. In addition to the wall, the entrance was
flanked by a stone tower without an interior space
measuring from 3.30 m to about 4 m. This part of
the fortification was built on a rampart surrounded
by a moat approximately 2.50 m deep. The material
from the structures is common for such monuments,
which allows dating the site to the 1st century BC —
2nd century AD (Гаврилюк та ін. 2023, с. 271).
Earlier it was suggested that the purpose of the
construction of the Lower Dnipro hillforts on the
turn of the era and their fortification with powerful
stone walls was to defend the waterway from Ol-
bia to the northern regions of the Northern Black
Sea area, inhabited by the settled population (Гав-
рилюк, 2013, p. 581). That is, the reason for the
emergence of these fortresses was strategic, eco-
nomic and connected with trade. It is not difficult
to assume that, in addition to trade relations, the
inhabitants of these settlements had to provide
themselves with everything they needed, that is,
to engage in agriculture in the form that was pos-
sible in those paleogeographical conditions. The
study of these conditions at the Konsulivka hillfort
has begun in the 2021 season. The paleopedologi-
cal research was conducted by DSc. Zh. M. Mat-
viishyna. During the study of soils, five samples
were taken for spore-pollen analysis, which with
further research was conducted by DSc. O. A. Si-
Fig. 1. Hillforts of the 2nd century BC — 2nd century AD, located on the banks of the Dnipro River before the formation of the
Kakhovka Reservoir
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2023, № 4 23
renko1. The results are published here for the first
time.
The purpose of this paper is to present the first
results of geoarchaeological research (paleope-
dological, palynological and archaeological) in a
1 Palynological research by O. A. Sirenko was carried out
in the course of the Grant of the Croatian Geological
Survey and the Croatian Geological Institute: «Analysis
of Neogene and Quaternary Floras of Both Croatia and
Ukraine». The authors are sincerely grateful to the Director
of the Croatian Geological Institute, Dr. Slobodan Miko,
as well as to all the staff of the Geology Department of
the Institute (Zavod za Geologiju) for their comprehensive
support and assistance in conducting the research.
complex and to show the prospects of such work
on archaeological sites not only of the Holocene in
general, but also of ancient Greek period.
Results of Paleopedological Observations
Due to the active development of the study of
Holocene soils, it is possible to identify not only
the intensity, but also the direction of natural pro-
cesses in certain segments of the Holocene histo-
ry. Not the least role in this regard was played by
the scheme of stages of nature's development in
the Holocene developed by M. F. Veklich (Веклич
Fig. 2. General view of the Konsulivka hillfort (with the localisation of excavation sites)
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2023, № 424
1987). A comprehensive study of archaeological
complexes makes it possible to more accurately
recreate the conditions of formation and evolution
of the ancient population. In the study of the soils
of the Konsulivka hillfort and its surroundings, we
use the methods developed by M. F. Veklich and
his followers (Веклич и др. 1979; Пархоменко,
2015, с. 16-21).
The paleopedological study of the Konsulivka
hillfort was aimed at reconstructing the natural en-
vironment of the settlement’s existence. The soils
were studied in five clearings carried out mainly
within excavation site no. VI (fig. 3). The results of
the soils study in the brightest in colour two clear-
ings no. 3 and no. 4 are presented in this paper.
To distinguish paleopedological clearings from ar-
chaeological excavations we use precisely the
term “clearings.”
The clearing no. 3 with background soils was
located 100 m west from the excavation site in
a ploughed field behind a road. The level of the
modern surface is 1.5 m higher than the main
excavation, the relief is a gentle slope of a high
terrace with a slope of 2—3 %. The type of soil
is defined as a southern meadow loamy cherno-
zem formed on loess. However, a more detailed
dissection reveals two stages of soil formation,
which are separated by a clear carbonate illu-
vium with white stars and powdery carbonates:
modern surface soil and ancient soil. The lev-
el of carbonate illuvium and small limestone
fragments correlates with the level of the ditch
overlap with limestone blocks from the clearing
no. 4, but here the body of the rampart is absent
and therefore this layer directly overlies the an-
cient soil (fig. 4)
The clearing no. 4 with the soils of the sec-
tion of the protective shaft was made in unit
no. 2 on its highest part. Three levels of ver-
tical sections are presented here: 1) the upper
Fig. 3. Excavation site no. VI with marked places of paleopedological clearings
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2023, № 4 25
level — a section of the rampart; 2) the lower
level — a section of the ditch and soils in it;
3) a transition zone with a slope to the trench,
where Buh River loess deposits are represent-
ed — the soil-forming material of the ancient
soil. From the modern day surface, modern soil
formed on the embankment and ancient soil of
the 1st century BC — 2nd century AD, as well
as loess rocks underlying it, can be observed.
The rampart is covered by flat large blocks of
Sarmatian limestone in the interval of 0.0—0.2
m from above; below are layers of modern soil
formed on the embankment material; 0.0—0.8
m below the modern soil, ancient soil formed on
loess (0.8—1.5 m) is clearly distinguished (fig.
5). The following layers and genetic horizons of
soils were traced in the top-down clearance.
The Modern Soil of the Embankment
Hdk — 0.0—0.1 m — brownish-grey to dark
gray, lumpy-dusty, light loam, loose, crumbly,
transition and boundary almost horizontal.
Hk — 0.1—0.27 m — a layer with a large
number of flatly placed stones 0.15—0.20 m in
size of shelly Sarmatian limestone. The horizon
is brownish-grey to dark grey, loose, but denser
than in the overlying horizon, humified, with
plant roots, lumpy-grained, with molehills of
5—6 cm in diameter with grey filling; large
fragments of ceramics are found, the transition
and boundary are gradual in colour and much
less present in the context of large limestone
blocks.
Hpk — 0.27—0.4 m — pale grey, loose when
wet, somewhat compacted when dry, with a clear
lumpy-grained structure, dusty light loam, includes
some small fragments of limestone, with grass
roots, many mole holes of 5—7 cm in diameter
with material from both the horizon described and
other layers. One mole hole is a habitable chamber
up to 20 cm in diameter; the transition is gradual,
recorded by lightened coloration.
Phk — 0.4—0.63 m — greyish-brownish-pale,
well-structured, lumpy-grained, loose dusty light
loam. It includes small fragments of limestone, with
humus stains on grass roots, with a large number of
mole holes with material from this horizon, as well
as humus and Pk (grey and fawn); the transition is
gradual, recorded by lightened colour.
Pk — 0.63—0.8 m — light greyish-pale,
dirty, lumpy, crumbly loess-like loam, dusty, with
carbonates in the form of small white specks and
floury isolations. This layer contains a large number
of limestone fragments of 0.1—0.15 cm in size, but
with no large blocks, as in the above horizons. The
transition and the boundary are almost horizontal
and are marked by a distinct darkening colour. The
following genetic horizons can be traced from the
top to the bottom.
Fig. 4. Clearing no. 3 (background)
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2023, № 426
Ancient Soil of the 1st Century BC — 2nd Cen-
tury AD
Hk — 0.8—0.9 m — pale light grey, weakly
compacted, with a flake-lumpy structure, hetero-
geneously coloured with lighter spots. It has many
powdery areas; CaCO3 is present both inherent to
this horizon and of diagenetic origin, and there are
many powdery CaCO3 isolations. The mole holes
of 3—15 cm in diameter are filled with material
from the same horizon, as well as from lower and
higher layers, the transition and boundary are grad-
ual and are recorded by slight lightening of colour.
Hpk — 0.9—1.1 m — yellowish-light grey,
looser than the described above, lumpy-crum-
bly, dusty light loam. Mealy carbonates seep in
here, and there are many burrows burrows of various siz-
es, from 5 to 15 cm in diameter, filled with both
dark and light (loess) material, which is the evi-
dence of extensive activity of terrestrial animals.
The transition and the boundary are gradual and
recorded by some greyer and browner shades of
the material colour and its greater density.
Phk — 1.1—1.3 m — yellowish pale-brown,
weakly compacted lamellar-lumpy light dusty loam,
mass cemented with carbonates, boils with HCL,
many mole hills with dark grey, brown and pale col-
our, the transition and boundary are gradual and are
recorded by the lightening of the colour. The stratum
contains a mole-housing chamber and isolated lime-
stone boulders. The transition and boundary are grad-
ual and are identified by the lightening of the colour.
P(h)k — 1.3—1.4 m — brownish pile-like
loess-like material, loose, crumbly, dusty light
loam with a large number of molehills, impreg-
nated with carbonates, transition and boundary are
clear, and are recorded by colour lightening.
Pk — 1.4—1.5 m — beech (bg) loess — whit-
ish-paler, light, uniformly coloured, but with a
large number of mole hills, carbonate-impregnat-
ed powdery dusty light loam. Up the slope to the
trench with a grade of about 20°, a vertical sec-
tion of up to 2.20 m shows a whitish-palmy loess,
which is the soil-forming rock for the antique soil.
Thus, in the clearing no. 4, the ancient soil
was preserved. Unlike the surface soil, it is char-
acterised by a lower humus content, although
soil-accumulative processes prevailed at that
time, but it was formed in a shorter time and is
more evenly humified. The soil has a well-de-
fined Pk (already in the bg loess), but at a shal-
lower depth than the modern soil. The peculiar-
Fig. 5. Clearing no. 4
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2023, № 4 27
ity of the ancient soil is the presence of a slight-
ly denser brownish-palace horizon cemented by
karst at the base, and it is possible that the soil
was originally formed as forest, and then dur-
ing the main time the conditions changed to dry
steppe. The ancient soil is close to the chestnut
soils of modern Ukraine, but differs from the
modern background soil in its shorter profile (its
thickness is 0.7 m, and the modern background
soil is 1.0 m), it is secondarily carbonised due to
the leaching of carbonates from the surface soil
and the strata beneath it. The ancient soil corre-
sponds to drier soil formation conditions (south-
ern variations of dry steppe).
Results of Palynological Observations In the
clearing no. 4, five samples of K-30/21, K-31/21,
K-32/21, K-33/21, K-34/21, K-35/21, K-36/21
were taken from the ancient soil (table 1).
The maceration of the samples was carried out
in the laboratory of primary processing of the Cro-
atian Geological Institute with the assistance of
Dragica Kovačić. The analytical work and photo-
graphs of palynomorphs were performed using a
Leica MC190 HD camera connected to the Leica
LAS EZ software, which was kindly provided to
us by Dr. Koraljka Bakrač.
Maceration was carried out according to the
methodology that was chosen at the previous
stage of experimental research on the study of
sandy rocks and included the following steps:
treatment of 100 grams of rock in 40 % HF de-
cantation with distilled water-treatment with 18%
HCl (seven minutes of boiling in a glass beaker
on a tile) — decantation with distilled water-
treatment with 10 % KOH (seven minutes of boil-
ing in a glass beaker on a plate) — decantation
with distilled water-treatment of the precipitate
Fig. 6. Pollen and spores from Holocene sediments of the Konsulivka hillfort: 1—5 — Pinus spp.subg. Diploxylon Koehne; 6 —
Alnus sp.; 7—9 — Betula spp.; 10 — Carpinus cf. betulus L.; 11 — Quercus cf. robur L.; 12 — Corylus cf. avellana L.; 13—
15 — Ephedra spp.; 16 — Cerealia (Poaceae); 17—19 — Poaceae; 20—24 — Asteraceae; 25—26 — Cichoriaceae; 27—30 —
Artemisia spp.; 31—40 — Chenopodiaceae; 41 — Polygonaceae; 42 — Linum cf. usitatissimum L. (Linaceae); 43 — Lamiaceae;
44 — Fabaceae; 45—45a — Typha sp.; 46 — Nupharaceae; 47—48 — Polypodiaceae
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with HCl (rocks poured overnight without boil-
ing) — decantation with distilled water — two-
step separation in heavy liquid ZnCl.
We obtained a sufficient amount of pollen
and spores to quantify the taxa in the spore-
pollen spectrum. For each sample, five to
eight preparations were studied. From 135 to
162 pollen grains and spores were counted from
the macerates of each sample. When calculating
the percentage of palynomorphs, the sum of all
pollen grains and spores identified, excluding
algae, was taken as 100 %. The content of each
taxon was calculated from this amount. Pollen
and spores were identified according to the Engler
classification system.
The Main Results of Palynological Studies.
(fig. 6) The spore-pollen spectra of samples
nos. 30—31 are similar in composition and
dominant pollen of herbaceous plants. A
distinctive feature of these spectra is the highest
content of woody pollen in the spectra (21.6—
13.8 %), as well as its taxonomic diversity. The
highest content of wood pollen was recorded
in the spectrum of sample no. 31. Pollen of
Pinus sp. subg Diploxylon Koehne dominates
in the spectra (12.6—9 %). Deciduous plants
of the temperate zone are represented by Betula
spp. pollen (6.8—2.4 %), and single pollen grains
of Alnus sp. (0.6%). The group of deciduous
plants of the temperate zone is represented
Fig. 7. Spore-pollen spectra from Holocene soils and sediments of cultural layers from the ancient site of Konsulivka hillfort:
a—e — codes and results of samples analysis K-30/21, K-34/21
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Table 1. Results of palynological, paleopedological and archaeological research from the clearing
no. 4 of the unit no. 2.0.08
Code of the palynological
samples
Names of the soil Paleopedological stratigraphy Archaeological stratigraphy
(Hk, Phk) III period — 0,1—0,63 m I — 0,32—0,81 m
II period — 0,63—1,1 m III — 0,29—0,81—1,40 m
К ‒ 30/21 Hk 0,8—0,9 m
К ‒ 31/21 Hpk 0,9—1,1 m
К ‒ 32/21 Phk 1,1—1,2 m
I period — 1,1—1,5 m IV — 0,46—1,46
К ‒ 33/21 Phk 1,3—1,4 m
К ‒ 34/21 Pk — (bg?) 1,4—1,5 m
by Quercus cf. robur L. (0.6 %), Carpinus cf.
betulus L., Carpinus sp. (1.5—0.6 %), Corylus
cf. avellana L., Corylus sp. (0.7—0.6 %). Shrubs
are represented by Ephedra sp. pollen (2.4 %).
The study of the macerate of the sample no. 31
revealed one Juglans pollen grain without obvious
signs of redeposition.
At this stage of the research, we did not
include it in the spore-pollen spectrum, but
we consider it necessary to note the fact of its
discovery. Pollen from herbaceous plants makes
up to 78.4—85.6 %. This group is dominated
by pollen of Chenopodiaceae (30.3—47.7 %).
The pollen grains of Artemisia spp. act as a
subdominant (22.3—16.5 %), somewhat less
pollen of Asteraceae, including Chichoriaceae
(19.3—10.5 % in total). The spectra of these
samples are also distinguished by the highest
amount of Poaceae pollen (3.7—5.5 %), as
well as its most Single pollen of Fabaceae,
Lamiaceae, and Polygonaceae was also traced
in the spectra. The group of aquatic and coastal
plants is represented by the pollen of Typha
sp. Single spores belong to Polypodiaceae.
Freshwater algae are also found.
The spectrum of the sample no. 32 differs from
the above-described ones by a further decrease
in the amount of tree pollen (up to 10.3 %), as
well as a decrease in their taxonomic diversity.
In addition to Pinus sp. subg Diploxylon kohene
(7.4 %), which dominates in this group, Betula
spp. pollen (2.2 %) and one Quercus pollen grain
were identified. The pollen of Ephedra sp. is
2.2 %.
Compared to the previous spectra, the dominant
group of herbaceous plants (89.7 %) has not
changed — Chenopodiaceae (36.4 %). Among
the subdominants, the second place belongs
to Asteraceae pollen (26 %), slightly less to
Artemisia spp. pollen (20 %). Single pollen grains
of other herbaceous plants belong to Fabaceae and
Polygonaceae. Spores were absent. Freshwater
algae were noted.
The spectra of the samples nos. 33 and 34
differ from the previous ones in the impoverished
taxonomic composition of both woody and
herbaceous pollen, as well as in the change of
dominants among herbaceous pollen.
Wood pollen makes up to 8.6—2.8 %. The small-
est amount of it was recorded in the spectrum of
the sample no. 34. Among this group, the pollen of
Pinus sp. subg Diploxylon kohene dominates (6.5—
1.4 %). It is worth noting the very poor preservation
of pollen from the macerate of the sample no. 33.
Pollen of Betula spp. is included in the spectrum of
only the sample no. 33 (1.4 %). Single pollen grains
of Quercus cf robur L. were also recorded.
Pollen of herbaceous plants makes up to 91.4—
97.2 %. In contrast to the previous spectra, pollen
of Artemisia spp. dominates in this group (45—
44 %). Pollens of Chenopodiaceae (22.9—25.2 %)
and Asteraceae (21.4—25.2 %) are in approxi-
mately equal proportions. Pollen of Poaceae was
not recorded. Single pollen grains of Euphorbiace-
ae, Linum cf. usitatissimum L. (Linaceae) and La-
miaceae were identified. The group of aquatic and
coastal-arid plants is represented by a single pollen
of Nupharaceae. The spore (spectrum of the sam-
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ple no. 34) belongs to Polypodiaceae. Freshwater
algae were also noted.
The materials at our disposal at this stage of re-
search make it possible to reconstruct the compo-
sition of the vegetation cover during soil forma-
tion.
The analysis of the established spore-pollen
spectra, as well as the cyclograms of the ecolog-
ical structure of spore-pollen spectra (fig. 7), in-
dicates that steppe landscapes dominated within
the study area during soil formation. The appear-
ance of pollen of hygrophytes and freshwater al-
gae in the specified territory may indicate the
existence of nearby freshwater reservoirs, or
that the territory was periodically flooded by
river waters. At the same time, the vegetation of
the periods of formation of individual horizons
of the studied ancient soil was probably some-
what different.
The vegetation of the time of sediment forma-
tion in the 1.5—1.4 m interval was the most deplet-
ed (fig. 7). Perhaps at this time, only herbaceous
coenoses dominated, the main component of which
was various Artemisia. Chenopodiaceae and As-
teraceae were subdominant. The steppe communi-
ties also included representatives of the Euphorbia-
ceae family and the Linum genus (Linaceae). Tree
species were probably not part of the vegetation at
all. This is evidenced by the amount of tree pollen
(2.8 %) and its belonging to plants of the genera
Pinus and Quercus. This pollen can be transported
by wind over long distances. The plant communi-
ties of the time of sediment formation in the interval
of 1.4—1.3 m was also characterised by a small di-
versity. The composition of herbaceous communi-
ties of this time was almost identical to the previous
interval. The nature of the dominants also did not
change (fig. 7).
Subsequently, the dominants of herbaceous
communities changed (fig.7). In particular, dur-
ing the formation of sediments of the 1.2—1.1 m
interval, various Chenopodiaceae had become the
main component of herbaceous communities, with
Asteraceae and Artemisia acting as subdominants.
Since pollen of woody plants played an insignifi-
cant role in the spectra (10.3 %), it could be con-
sidered an invasive species.
At the same time, given the clear trend of in-
creasing the number and taxonomic diversity of
tree pollen from spectra from the lower soil lay-
ers to those from the upper ones, we consider it
legitimate to assume the existence of separate
tree communities with pine, birch and oak along
the river terraces. The number of these commu-
nities increased from the time of formation of
the Phk horizon to the time of formation of the
Hk horizon (fig. 3). In particular, during the for-
mation of the Hpk and Hk horizons (samples
nos. 31, 30) within the study area, there were
separate small woody communities on lowered
relief elements, which, in addition to Pinus and
Betula, included Alnus, Carpinus, Quercus, and
Corylus.
The herbaceous communities, in addition to
the dominant Chenopodiaceae, consisted of As-
teraceae and Artemisia with minor participation
of forbs. Regarding Poaceae pollen, numerous
studies by palynologists have established that
the participation of Poaceae pollen in subfossil
spore-pollen complexes of the steppe zone is un-
derestimated compared to their participation in
the modern vegetation cover (Зубець 1971; Без-
усько Л. Г., Мосякін, Безусько А. Г. 2011). Tak-
ing into account these data, Poaceae are includ-
ed in the dominant complex if their content in
the subphosphorus complex was greater than or
equal to 5 %. Therefore, we can include Poace-
ae only in the dominant vegetation complex of
the time of the Hpk horizon formation. The pres-
ence of Triticum sp. (wheat) in the spectrum may
be an evidence of the development of agriculture
within the area under study. During the formation
of the Phk and Hk horizons, the herbaceous com-
munities probably included only single Poaceae,
and during the formation of sediments at depths
of 1.4—1.3 m and 1.5—1.4 m, Poaceae were not
included in the vegetation at all.
Since Ephedra pollen is not recorded in all
spectra and accounts for less than 10% (accord-
ing to: Безусько Л. Г., Мосякін, Безусько А.
Г. 2011), it cannot be included in the dominant
complexes. It is likely that single Ephedra were
part of the steppe cenoses at the time of forma-
tion of the Hpk, Phk and Pk horizons. According
to L. G. Bezusko, A. G. Bezusko, and S. L. Mo-
siakin, a direct correlation between the participa-
tion of Ephedra in modern cenoses and the con-
tent of its pollen in subfossil spore-pollen spectra
was traced.
Results of archaeological research
Three archaeological stratigraphic layers were
traced in the clearing no. 4 (Гаврилюк та ін. 2023,
с. 272). They correlate well with the paleope-
dological ones (table 1).
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Layer I is a modern, doubly dense, heteroge-
neous, mixed layer of light grey to grey-brown co-
lour with a large number of small and medium-
sized stones. According to the data from the clear-
ing no. 4, this layer correlates with the Hdk layer.
On the southern side of unit no. 2, it was traced to
a depth of 0.32 m from the modern surface. The
layer contained modern debris along with archaeo-
logical material. The archaeological material was
dominated by fragments of handmade pottery (fig.
8, 1—2), which accounted for 52.7 % of the total
material. The second place was occupied by frag-
ments of ceramic containers, which accounted for
36.3 %. Among them were fragments of light-co-
loured amphorae, probably of Heraclean produc-
tion. The layer also contains single fragments of
orange and pink clay amphorae, as well as Aegean
Pseudo-Koan containers. Fragments of the walls
of amphorae from unidentified production centers
were also found in this layer. Tableware from layer
I is represented by fragments of grey clay pottery.
Its percentage share was 9.1 %. Among the indi-
vidual finds we can note a ceramic cork (fig. 8, 3),
stone items: fishing weights (fig. 8, 4—5) a frag-
ment of a grain grinder, and a fragment of a re-
used funerary slab. Traces of gradual natural de-
struction of the stone defenses (archaeological pe-
riod III) show the cessation of life at the site. The
nature of the destructive processes indicates that
this occurred rather slowly, and in the comparison
with other hillforts of this type (for example, An-
nivka hillfort). Single archaeological finds and the
absence of traces of fires may indicate that the in-
habitants of the Konsulivka hillfort left it with ev-
erything they needed and the defensive structures
were destroyed without human intervention.
Layer I overlapped the underlying layer III.
Layer II was not observed in the clearing no. 4.
The depth of layer III in the southern side of unit
no. 2 ranged from 0.29 to 0.81 m from the mod-
ern surface. This is a dense, heterogeneous layer
of fine-grained silt loam, grey-brown to yellowish-
brown in colour with single small stones, inclusions
of fine-grained limestone, mainland loess washes,
molehill, ceramics and animal bones. In unit no. 2,
layer III laid directly on the escarpment of a defen-
sive ditch dug in the mainland loess. Only in the
southern part of the units it overlapped with layer
no. IV. In unit no. 2, the mainland was at a level of
sparse of 1.40 m (in the south-western part of the
unit) and — 3.58 m (in the north-eastern part of the
unit). The archaeological material in the layer is
sparse. It is dominated by fragments of handmade
pottery (fig. 8, 6—7), which account for 39.2 % of
the total number of finds of 31.4 % of the found ma-
terial layer was made up of clay coating fragments.
The third place was occupied by fragments of am-
phorae containers, which accounted for 26.6 % of
the total number of finds. This group was dominat-
ed by fragments of light- and orange-fired ampho-
rae. Single fragments of pink-clay and pseudo-Kos-pseudo-Kos-
amphorae with double-barrelled handles were also
found in the layer (fig. 8, 8). Tableware is represent-
ed by a single fragment of a grey clay vessel wall.
Its percentage participation reached only 2 % of the
total archaeological material from the layer III. Pal-
ynological samples K-32/21, K-31/21, and K-30/21
come from this archaeological layer (archaeological
period II), which characterises the subsequent xe-
rophitysation of vegetation. The basis of bog ceno-
ses were wormwood plants (Artemisia sp.). How-
ever, unlike the previous period, their percentage is
much lower — up to 22.3 %). Asteraceae, together
with Chichoriaceae and Poaceae (cereals, mint) and
even spelt (Triticum sp.) pollen, make up a signifi-
cant share. The vegetation of the second period is
characterised by the presence of Ephedra sp. pol-
len, which is an indicator of a dry warm period. A
certain amount of tree pollen is recorded in this lay-
er (fig. 7).
The analysis of the vegetation reconstructed on
the basis of palynological studies shows the pres-
ence in the natural environment of the Konsulivka
hillfort of pasture digression signs, which in the
previous period, namely in the 3rd century BC, had
the character of a zonal phenomenon. As it turned
out, grass biocenoses in the environment of Kon-
sulivka hillfort (layer IV, this part had not been
inhabited yet) and their composition still largely
contains pasture weeds, the share of which in the
vegetation composition corresponds to two stag-
es of pasture digression inherent in modern pas-
tures of the steppe zone of south-eastern Ukraine
(Шевчук 2006, с. 187). Particular attention should
be paid to the family Chenopodiaceae. Ven. (qui-
noa), the genera Ephedra (ephedra) and Artemis-
ia (wormwood), which are undoubtedly indicators
of the spread of sod-grass and wormwood-grass
steppes (Безусько, Мосякін, Цимбалюк 2003,
с. 393-395). Most authors associate the change
of the herbaceous plant group to another not only
with natural, but primarily with anthropogenic in-
fluence (e.g., Артющенко 1982, с. 6-130), which
is recorded in this part of the settlement with the
appearance of signs of its settlement — an increase
in the number of archaeological finds.
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Fig. 8. Archaeological finds from excavation site no. VI — from ancient soil
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The correlation of the results of paleopedologi-
cal and palynological studies with the archaeologi-
cal materials of the Konsulivka settlement allowed
stating that according to paleopedological data, for
the first time in the archaeology of antiquity, a pre-
served “ancient” soil was described at the Kon-
sulivkа hillfort which is reliably dated by the ar-
chaeological material of the 1st century BC — 2nd
century AD. Unlike the surface soil, it is charac-
terised by a lower humus content, and was formed
in a shorter time and is more evenly humified. The
peculiarity of the ancient soil is the presence of a
cemented karst formation and a more compacted
brownish-palustrine horizon at the base. The an-
cient soil is close to the chestnut soils of modern
Ukraine, but differs from the modern background
soil by a shorter profile and secondary to carbon-
ation.
The analysis of the vegetation composition ob-
tained as a result of palynological research allows
us to identify some features of cattle breeding as
one of the main branches of the economy of the
Lower Dnipro population at the turn of the era. To-
gether with agriculture, the organisation of which
had many similarities with the ancient system of
farming, cattle breeding remained the basis of the
economy of the population of this region (Гаври-
люк 2013, с. 567-568).
If we pay attention to the methods of cattle breed-
ing and compare the composition of the herd of the
previous Classical period with the herd of the inhab-
itants of the Lower Dnipro settlements of the 1st cen-
tury BC — 2nd century AD, we will notice that in the
post-Scythian period in the Lower Dnipro the amount
of cattle bones decreases (from 24 to 32 % of bones
from kitchen remains) against 50 % in the Middle
Scythian period. The number of sheep-goat bones re-
mains unchanged. It is known that sheep farming is
especially in demand in times of crisis. In addition,
the role of pigs in the herds of the inhabitants of the
Lower Dnipro settlements is noticeably increasing:
the share of pig bones in the kitchen remains is 16—
32 %, while in the Middle Scythian period they only
start to appear (Журавльов 1995, p. 134). The com-
position of the herds belonging to the inhabitants of
the Lower Dnipro settlements indicates a decrease in
the mobility of herds. It seems that stall-based cattle
breeding with homestead grazing was concentrated
in the suburbs (examples are Annivka or Havrylivka
hillforts). The same system could have been in place
at the Konsulivka hillfort.
Palynological studies of samples from the two
periods of the mentioned hillfort contain informa-
tion about the vegetation synchronous with the
emergence of the settlement and the beginning
of the economic use of its environment. In other
words, they make it possible to determine some
features of economic activity, primarily the use of
pastures and the presence of certain signs of pas-
ture deterioration due to unregulated usage.
The evidence of environmental degradation
due to pastoral digression in the area of the Kon-
sulivka hillfort is the presence of saiga bones in
the archaeozoological spectra of wild animals —
indicators of digression (Журавльов 1995, с. 34).
The main food of these animals is pasture weeds
(Динесман 1982, с. 13). This assumption is sup-
ported by the methods of cattle breeding (Гаври-
люк 2013, с. 567-568), as well as the composi-
tion of the herd in the households of the popu-
lation of the Lower Dnipro settlements (Цалкин
1966, с. 80-116), which was dominated by sheep
and horses that trampled on pastures intensive-
ly. It is impossible to speak about the scale of di-
gressive phenomena based on the materials of
one settlement, but the fact of this phenomenon
should be recorded.
Similar studies conducted at the modern scien-
tific level on archaeological sites synchronous to
the Konsulivka hillfort and located on the territo-
ry of the Eurasian steppe belt (e.g. Демкин 1997,
с. 210; Иванов, Демкин 1999, с. 106-1136; Ли-
сецкий 2008, с. 913-927; 2015, с. 94-99) indicate
the instability of the steppe agrocenosis and their
tendency to develop pasture digression.
Conclusions
According to paleopedological data, for the
first time in the archaeology of antiquity, preserved
“ancient” soil has been described at the Konsuliv-
ka hillfort, which, according to archaeological ma-
terial, is reliably dated to the 1st century BC — 2nd
century AD. Unlike the surface soil, it is character-
ised by a lower humus content, a shorter time for-
mation, and that it is more evenly humified. The
ancient soil is similar to the chestnut soils of mod-
ern Ukraine.
The ancient soil corresponds to drier soil for-
mation conditions (southern variations of the
dry steppe). According to climatologists, who
believe that climate change could have been re-
gional in nature, the territory of the Lower Dni-
pro region could have been part of the Roman
climatic optimum zone, i.e., a short period of
the sub-Atlantic period, covering the time frame
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2023, № 434
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lajewka” am Dnjepr, Gouv. Cherson. Praehistorische
Zeitschrift. V, S. 80-148.
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from 250 BC to 400 AD (Patterson et al. 2010,
p. 530-610).
Paleopedological studies have confirmed that
the Konsulivka hillfort is a multi-layered monu-
ment, as evidenced by the stratigraphy of all ex-
cavations at the site, including excavation site
no. VI. Thus, a comprehensive interdisciplinary
study made it possible to clearly distinguish three
periods in the history of the hillfort.
According to the palynological analysis, the
composition of the vegetation cover (about 40
names) of pastures and meadows that ensured the
development of cattle breeding in the economy of
the inhabitants of Konsulivka hillfort was recon-
structed. Changes in the condition of pastures dur-
ing the existence of the hillfort were traced. The
beginning of the deterioration of the biocenosis as
a result of anthropogenic intervention was record-
ed.
The conclusions presented here relate to the nat-
ural environment of only one of the 15 settlement
groups of the Lower Dnipro region, the study of
which is of particular importance in the current con-
ditions of total destruction of archaeological sites in
the Dnipro River region after the explosion of the
Kakhovka Hydroelectric Power Station.
Our work is only the first step in the study of
the Lower Dnipro hillforts in their natural envi-
ronment. The conducted comprehensive interdis-
ciplinary research has shown the prospects of the
proposed new direction of studying the settlement
structures of antiquity.
ISSN 0235-3490 (Print), ISSN 2616-499X (Online). Археологія, 2023, № 4 35
Н. О. Гаврилюк1, О. А. Сіренко2, Ж. М. Матвіїшина3, М. Матера4
1Доктор історичних наук, провідний науковий співробітник, Інститут археології НАН України, відділ античної архео-
логії, ORCID: 0000-0002-2369-5701, gavrylyuk_na@ukr.net
2Доктор геологічних наук, головний науковий співробітник, відділ стратиграфії та палеонтології кайнозойських від-
кладів, Інститут геології НАН України, Київ; ORCID: 0000-0002-8019-6407, o_sirenko@ukr.net
3Доктор географічних наук, провідний науковий співробітник, відділ палеогеографії, Інститут географії НАН України,
ORCID: 0000-0003-1412-7232, zhmatv.paleo@gmail.com
4Доктор археології, Університет Варшави, факультет археології, ORCID: 0000-0003-4913-0749, marcinmatera@
uw.edu.pl
ПАЛЕОЕКОЛОГІЧНА ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКА КОНСУЛІВСЬКОГО ГОРОДИЩА ТА ЙОГО ОТОЧЕННЯ
Представлено результати палеопедологічних, палінологічних та археологічних досліджень Консулівського городища,
розташованого на правому березі Дніпра біля с. Республіканець Бериславського р-ну Херсонської обл. Геоархеологічні
дослідження на пам’ятках Нижноього Подніпров’я здійснено вперше.
Мета цієї роботи представити перші результати геоархеологічних досліджень (палеопедологічних, палінологічних
та археологічних) у комплексі; показати перспективність таких робіт на античних пам’ятках.
У вересні 2021 р. проводилися розкопки північно-західного кута великої фортеці Консулівського городища. Ви-
явлено залишки кам’яної оборонної стіни близько та кутовий в’їзд на городище. Здійснено п’ять палеопедологічних
розчисток на городищі та за його межами.
Виявлено законсервованим античний грунт, що датується І ст. до н.е. — ІІ ст. н.е. і характеризується меншим вмістом
гумусу, має гарно виражений Pk. Особливістю античного ґрунту є наявність ущільненішого буро-пальового горизонту
в основі. Він близький до каштанових ґрунтів сучасної України. Палепедологічними дослідженнями підтверджено, що
культурний шар городища складається з трьох прошарків, тобто Консулівське городище є багатошаровою пам’яткою,
про що свідчить і археологічна стратиграфія.
Палінологічні дослідження зразків містять інформацію про рослинність, синхронну виникненню городища та по-
чатку господарського використання його довкілля. Зміна рослинної групи на іншу пов’язується не тільки з природним,
але з антропогенним впливом.
Отже, комплексний аналіз довкілля підтвердив багатошаровий характер культурного шару городища. Аналіз
рослинності свідчить про наявність у природному оточенні Консулівського городища ознак пасовищної дигресії. Пер-
ші міждисциплінарні дослідження на Консулівському городищі показали перспективність таких робіт на археологічних
пам’ятках античності.
К л ю ч о в і с л о в а: степовий регіон, Нижнє Подніпров’я, давньогрецький період, геоархеологічні дослідження, палео-
педологічні дослідження, палінологічні дані.
kolajewka am Dnjepr (Gouv. Cherson). Praehisto-rische
Zeitschrift. V, S. 148-157.
Matera, M., Nykonenko, D., Gavrylyuk, N. Lech, P.
2022. Some Remarks about Konsulovskoe a Lesser-Known
Late Scythian Hillfort on the Lower Dnieper. In: Board-
man, J., Hargrave, J., Avram, A., Podossinov, A. V. (eds.),
Connecting the Ancient West and East: Studies Presented to
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