Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods
The strain-induced martensite transformation during the low-cycle fatigue in austenitic AISI 316 stainless steel was investigated by magnetic and acoustic nondestructive methods. The low-cycle fatigue test was performed at various strain amplitudes. The volume fraction of α’-martensite was determine...
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| Cite this: | Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods / C.S. Kim // Проблемы прочности. — 2018. — № 1. — С. 50-55. — Бібліогр.: 6 назв. — англ. |
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Kim, C.S. 2020-12-21T18:05:25Z 2020-12-21T18:05:25Z 2018 Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods / C.S. Kim // Проблемы прочности. — 2018. — № 1. — С. 50-55. — Бібліогр.: 6 назв. — англ. 0556-171X https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/173812 539.4 The strain-induced martensite transformation during the low-cycle fatigue in austenitic AISI 316 stainless steel was investigated by magnetic and acoustic nondestructive methods. The low-cycle fatigue test was performed at various strain amplitudes. The volume fraction of α’-martensite was determined for the fatigue-failed specimens by magnetic property measurements with further microstructure detection. The cyclic hardening behavior was discussed in terms of the α’-martensite transformation. The volume fraction of α’-martensite was growing with the strain amplitude. An increase in the α’-martensite fraction was evaluated with the nonlinear ultrasonic parameter. The α’-martensite fraction may distort the lattice in austenitic stainless steel, resulting in the distortion of an ultrasonic wave. From this distortion, superharmonics may be generated with the α’-martensite nucleation, which strongly depends on the strain amplitude. The relationship between nonlinear acoustic characteristic and the volume fraction of α’-martensite is linear. Исследовано деформационное превращение мартенсита при малоцикловой усталости аустенитной нержавеющей стали AISI 316 с использованием магнитного и акустического неразрушающих методов. Испытания на малоцикловую усталость проводили при различных амплитудах деформации. Объемную долю α’-мартенсита определяли на образцах в состоянии усталостного разрушения путем измерения магнитных свойств с последующим анализом микроструктуры. Эффект циклического упрочнения рассматривали с точки зрения превращения α’-мартенсита, объемная доля которого возрастала с повышением амплитуды деформации. Ее оценивали по нелинейному ультразвуковому параметру. Содержание α’-мартенсита в решетке аустенитной нержавеющей стали может вызывать ее искажение, проявляющееся как искажение ультразвуковой волны. Оно может генерировать супергармоники, сопровождающиеся зарождением α’-мартенсита, что сильно зависит от амплитуды деформации. Между нелинейной акустической характеристикой и объемной долей α’-мартенсита существует линейная зависимость. This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (2017R1D1A3B03028681). en Інститут проблем міцності ім. Г.С. Писаренко НАН України Проблемы прочности Научно-технический раздел Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods Оценка деформационного превращения мартенсита при малоцикловой усталости нержавеющей стали AISI 316 с использованием магнитного и акустического неразрушающих методов Article published earlier |
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Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods |
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Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods Kim, C.S. Научно-технический раздел |
| title_short |
Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods |
| title_full |
Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods |
| title_fullStr |
Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods |
| title_sort |
assessment of the low-cycle strain-induced martensite transformation in aisi 316 stainless steel by magnetic and acoustic nondestructive methods |
| author |
Kim, C.S. |
| author_facet |
Kim, C.S. |
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Научно-технический раздел |
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Научно-технический раздел |
| publishDate |
2018 |
| language |
English |
| container_title |
Проблемы прочности |
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Інститут проблем міцності ім. Г.С. Писаренко НАН України |
| format |
Article |
| title_alt |
Оценка деформационного превращения мартенсита при малоцикловой усталости нержавеющей стали AISI 316 с использованием магнитного и акустического неразрушающих методов |
| description |
The strain-induced martensite transformation during the low-cycle fatigue in austenitic AISI 316 stainless steel was investigated by magnetic and acoustic nondestructive methods. The low-cycle fatigue test was performed at various strain amplitudes. The volume fraction of α’-martensite was determined for the fatigue-failed specimens by magnetic property measurements with further microstructure detection. The cyclic hardening behavior was discussed in terms of the α’-martensite transformation. The volume fraction of α’-martensite was growing with the strain amplitude. An increase in the α’-martensite fraction was evaluated with the nonlinear ultrasonic parameter. The α’-martensite fraction may distort the lattice in austenitic stainless steel, resulting in the distortion of an ultrasonic wave. From this distortion, superharmonics may be generated with the α’-martensite nucleation, which strongly depends on the strain amplitude. The relationship between nonlinear acoustic characteristic and the volume fraction of α’-martensite is linear.
Исследовано деформационное превращение мартенсита при малоцикловой усталости аустенитной нержавеющей стали AISI 316 с использованием магнитного и акустического неразрушающих методов. Испытания на малоцикловую усталость проводили при различных амплитудах деформации. Объемную долю α’-мартенсита определяли на образцах в состоянии усталостного разрушения путем измерения магнитных свойств с последующим анализом микроструктуры. Эффект циклического упрочнения рассматривали с точки зрения превращения α’-мартенсита, объемная доля которого возрастала с повышением амплитуды деформации. Ее оценивали по нелинейному ультразвуковому параметру. Содержание α’-мартенсита в решетке аустенитной нержавеющей стали может вызывать ее искажение, проявляющееся как искажение ультразвуковой волны. Оно может генерировать супергармоники, сопровождающиеся зарождением α’-мартенсита, что сильно зависит от амплитуды деформации. Между нелинейной акустической характеристикой и объемной долей α’-мартенсита существует линейная зависимость.
|
| issn |
0556-171X |
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https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/173812 |
| citation_txt |
Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive Methods / C.S. Kim // Проблемы прочности. — 2018. — № 1. — С. 50-55. — Бібліогр.: 6 назв. — англ. |
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UDC 539.4
Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation
in AISI 316 Stainless Steel by Magnetic and Acoustic Nondestructive
Methods
C. S. Kim
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Chosun University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
chs2865@chosun.ac.kr
The strain-induced martensite transformation during the low-cycle fatigue in austenitic AISI 316
stainless steel was investigated by magnetic and acoustic nondestructive methods. The low-cycle
fatigue test was performed at various strain amplitudes. The volume fraction of �� -martensite was
determined for the fatigue-failed specimens by magnetic property measurements with further
microstructure detection. The cyclic hardening behavior was discussed in terms of the �� -martensite
transformation. The volume fraction of �� -martensite was growing with the strain amplitude. An
increase in the �� -martensite fraction was evaluated with the nonlinear ultrasonic parameter. The
�� -martensite fraction may distort the lattice in austenitic stainless steel, resulting in the distortion of
an ultrasonic wave. From this distortion, superharmonics may be generated with the �� -martensite
nucleation, which strongly depends on the strain amplitude. The relationship between nonlinear
acoustic characteristic and the volume fraction of �� -martensite is linear.
Keywords: strain-induced martensite, low-cycle fatigue, acoustic nonlinearity, stainless
steel, super-harmonics.
Introduction. Austenitic AISI 316 steels are widely used in the chemical and energy
industry components due to their good corrosion resistance, weldability, and excellent
mechanical properties. These advantages are critical under severe working conditions such
as high temperature, high pressure, cyclic loading, etc. There is a growing interest in the
failure prediction of austenitic stainless steels: structural components designed for
high-temperature and high-pressure environments of power and chemical plans strongly
deteriorate during their operation, which raise safety and integrity concerns. In addition,
desirable or undesirable unforeseen states may occur during service, which may influence
the material state or behavior. Changes to the material properties can never be detected in
facilities during operation using conventional destructive methods. Therefore, the integrity
assurance and life prediction of structural components is necessary for the structural safety
and reliable operation [1]. For the life prediction and assurance of mechanical structures,
the precise nondestructive testing for fatigue-damaged materials is critical.
An AISI 316 steel has a paramagnetic and metastable phase, which is easily
transformed into the strain-induced martensite, �� -phase [2]. This strain-induced martensite
fraction is in the ferromagnetic phase. The magnetic property is very sensitive to any
microstructural changes in the materials. Therefore, magnetic methods have been applied to
various steels to estimate the microstructural changes, such as phase transformation and
variation of grain and particle sizes [3]. The magnetic properties of steels (i.e.,
ferromagnetic materials) are known to depend on their microstructural characteristics, such
as composition, dislocation, size of grains and precipitates, etc. Nonlinear ultrasonic
analysis can promote an understanding of the evolution and accumulation of plastic
deformation of materials at very early stages of fatigue. The enhanced generation of
high-order harmonics due to the distortion of ultrasonic waves propagated through the
materials has been reported by numerous authors, and recent experimental studies and new
© C. S. KIM, 2018
50 ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìè ì³öíîñò³, 2018, ¹ 1
physical models provide a strong evidence that the nonlinear ultrasonic parameter � is
highly dependent on the fatigue degradation [4].
The aim of the present study is to investigate the low-cycle strain-induced degradation
of AISI 316 stainless steels using magnetic and acoustic methods. The nonlinear ultrasonic
measurement is performed in austenitic stainless steels and the oblique incidence technique
has been applied to obtain the nonlinear ultrasonic parameter. Also, the magnetic
characteristics are measured for the microstructural evolution; various metallurgical
observations are made after the fatigue failure at various strain amplitudes. An attempt is
made to establish the microstructure effect on the generation of high-order harmonics of the
ultrasonic wave and variation in the magnetic properties during the cyclic loading in
austenitic stainless steels by correlating the results of nondestructive evaluation (NDE)
characteristics with the microstructural evolution data.
1. Experimental Procedure. Flat specimens of 15 mm gauge length were produced
from from hot-rolled AISI 316 stainless steel specimen and subjected to the low-cycle
fatigue (LCF) tests at room temperature in compliance with the ASTM E 606 standard test
method regulations. The total strain amplitude was controlled under fully reversed tension
and compression with plates. The total strain amplitude was controlled through the range
from 0.5 to 1.7% with 3 10 3� � s�1 strain rate. The magnetic characteristics of fatigue
damaged specimens have been evaluated to investigate the phase transformation such as
strain-induced martensite transformation, since this martensite fraction is the ferromagnetic
phase. The magnetic characteristics such as the coercivity ( ),Hc remanance (M r ), and
saturation magnetization (M s) were obtained from the magnetic induction (B) and magnetic
field (H) curve, magnetic hysteresis through the vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM)
measurement system.
A high-power pulse generator (Ritec, RAM5000 SNAP) was used to provide
high-power tone-burst signals to the transmitter. A schematic diagram of the experimental
setup for measuring the acoustic nonlinearity of an oblique incidence measurement
technique is shown in Fig. 1. The oblique incidence technique has a practical utility in
structural facilities of plants due to its easy accessibility to the surfaces of structures under
study. The received signal was digitally processed using the fast Fourier transform (FFT)
power spectral analysis to obtain amplitudes of the fundamental and second-order harmonic
frequencies. The amplitude of the fundamental frequency ( )A1 was determined from the
FFT of the signal fed to channel 1; then the nonlinear ultrasonic parameter (�) was
measured using �� A A2 1
2, which is the relative value �� of the absolute parameter �
[5].
Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation ...
ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìè ì³öíîñò³, 2018, ¹ 1 51
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup for measuring the acoustic nonlinearity by the
oblique incidence technique (R and T are receiver and transmitter probes, respectively).
2. Results and Discussion. Figure 2 depicts the low-cycle fatigue results of austenitic
AISI 316 stainless steel. The stress amplitude was varied as a function of the number of
cycles with the total stain amplitude. The number of cycles to fatigue fracture decreased
with strain amplitude. This allowed for examination of variation in the maximum load with
the number of cycles, which could indicate whether the material was cyclically hardened,
softened, or stable.
The stress amplitude increased within several tens of cycles, which corresponded to
the first cyclic hardening, and then a slight softening was observed at 0.5% strain
amplitude. From 0.8 to 1.1% of the strain amplitude, the second hardening was observed.
Over the stain amplitude of 1.1%, there is no saturation phenomenon of stress amplitude
and second hardening. For the first hardening, the dislocation multiplication and increase of
dislocation density may be the primary reason of hardening. The subsequent second
hardening was caused by the strain-induced �� -martensite transformation with fatigue
deformation. The surface microstructures of the austenitic 316 stainless steel corresponding
strain amplitude of 1.7% are shown in Fig. 3a and 3b, and they are compared with those of
the as-received specimen.
The as-received specimen consisted of a singular �-austenitic phase. However, the
dual phases such as �-austenite and �� -martensite have been observed in fatigue-damaged
specimens. Figure 3c and 3d shows transmission electron micrographs of the dislocation
substructure in the as-received and fatigue failure at strain amplitude of 1.7%. The typical
dislocation cell microstructure was well-developed. The first hardening within several tens
of cycles was caused by the dislocation multiplication and increased dislocation density,
and then the cyclic softening was attributed to this dislocation cell formation by fatigue.
Figure 4 depicts the variation in the magnetic properties of fatigue damaged specimens.
The magnetic parameters such as Hc , M s and M r increased as a function of strain
amplitude. The monotonic increase in the magnetic parameters with the strain amplitude
could be closely related to magnetic particles in austenitic AISI 316 stainless steels. As
mentioned earlier, the austenite matrix is in the non-ferromagnetic phase. In addition, there
is another reason for the increase in the magnetic parameters in this austenitic AISI 316
stainless steel. The martensite fraction effect can be an important factor of ferromagnetic
phase that may affect the magnetic properties.
The strain-induced martensite could have a reasonable influence on the magnetic
property. The slip and twin boundaries could present an obstacle to the magnetic domain
movement, resulting in an increase in the magnetic parameters. In addition, dislocations
may be one of primary effects on the domain wall movement, which is a reasonable cause
of the variation in magnetic parameters. Most of all, the strain-induced martensite had a
C. S. Kim
52 ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìè ì³öíîñò³, 2018, ¹ 1
Fig. 2. Variation of stress amplitude as a function of number of fatigue cycles at various strain
amplitudes featuring two cyclic hardening patterns.
reasonable influence on the increase in magnetic properties because of its ferromagnetic
property. The austenite is a typical paramagnetic phase in steel microstructure. However,
the strain-induced martensite ( �� phase) is primarily ferromagnetic phase. Therefore, the
magnetic parameters of fatigue-damaged specimens are originally caused by the �� phase
during the fatigue damage. Figure 5 shows the acoustic signal and its spectrum of the
ultrasonic wave. In this test, a 5 MHz transducer was used as a transmitter and a 10 MHz
transducer was used as a receiver. Because a narrow band signal is advantageous for
effectively detecting the higher harmonic amplitude, a 5 MHz tone-burst signal with a
“window” was used to transmit the waveform. The length of the burst was 10 cycles, which
confirmed that both the fundamental frequency and its double frequency for the
second-order harmonic wave were detected and identified quite accurately.
ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìè ì³öíîñò³, 2018, ¹ 1 53
Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation ...
Fig. 3. Optical and transmission electron micrographs showing �� -martensite and dislocation
substructure as indicated by arrows: (a) optical image of as-received sample showing deformation
free and many annealing twins; (b) optical image of 1.7% strain amplitude specimen showing
�� -martensite phase; (c) TEM image of as-received specimen showing rare dislocation density; (d)
TEM image of 1.7% strain amplitude specimen showing �� -martensite and high dislocation density.
(The number of cycles up to failure, N f 182.)
Fig. 4. Change in the coercivity (H c), magnetization (Ms), and remanance (Mr ) of the fatigue-
damaged specimens with different strain amplitudes.
The second-order harmonic amplitude depends on the fundamental frequency
amplitude. From the theoretical background, the second-order harmonic amplitude would
be linearly proportional to the square of the fundamental amplitude, which implies that
parameter �� is constant regardless of the variation in the fundamental frequency
amplitude when the wave number and propagation distance are fixed. Figure 6 depicts the
variation in the acoustic nonlinearity of AISI 316 stainless steel fatigue-failed specimens at
various strain amplitudes. The acoustic nonlinearity increased with strain amplitudes due to
the fatigue-driven plastic deformation, and it is closely related to the strain amplitudes and
fatigue deformation accumulation. To reveal the microstructural features that influence the
distortion of the acoustic wave, resulting in super-harmonic generation, we consider the
microstructural evolution during the fatigue damage process. It has been reported by many
authors that during cyclic loading, dislocations play an important role in generating
ultrasonic wave super-harmonics. The nonlinear acoustic parameter is related to the
dislocation loop length (L), dislocation density (
), and stress (�) via the following equation
[6]:
� ��
L4 . (1)
Equation (1) shows that � is linearly dependent on the stress and dislocation density.
Here the variation in the acoustic nonlinearity parameter with the strain amplitude has been
discussed with consideration for the effect of both parameter strain and microstructural
changes during fatigue. In TEM microstructure, as shown in Fig. 3, increased dislocation
densities were observed. Clear dislocation cell structures have been observed in the TEM
microstructure. The cell interior is dislocation-free and corresponds to fatigue strain
softening. Martensite is a distorted bcc ferrite lattice in parts of a steel crystal that still
contains the dissolved carbon and is full of defects. The share of atomically dissolved
carbon in the martensite exceeds the value acceptable for a stable ferrite, distorting the
lattice. This lattice distortion can be the primary reason for the wave distortion when the
ultrasonic wave propagates through the test materials, since super-harmonics may be
generated with a nucleation of strain-induced martensite, which strongly depends on the
strain amplitude. Noteworthy is that the NDE technique allows one to use the acoustic
nonlinearity parameter for characterizing the �� -martensite during fatigue strain-induced
deformation of austenitic stainless steels.
54 ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìè ì³öíîñò³, 2018, ¹ 1
C. S. Kim
Fig. 5. Ultrasonic signal wave and its spectral waveform for 1.7% strain amplitude showing 1st and
2nd order ultrasonic harmonics.
Conclusions. The martensite transformation ( �� phase) subjected to low-cycle fatigue
damage in AISI 316 steel was evaluated with the magnetic and acoustic nondestructive
evaluation techniques. The �� phase (strain-induced martensite) has been generated and the
volume fraction increased with cyclic stain amplitude. The increase in the �� -martensite
fraction was evaluated using a nonlinear ultrasonic parameter. The �� -martensite may
distort the lattice in austenitic stainless steels, resulting in the ultrasonic wave distortion.
The superharmonics were generated with a nucleation of the strain-induced martensite and
exhibited their strong dependence on the strain amplitude. This study results strongly
suggest that the acoustic nonlinearity parameter and magnetic coercivity can be successfully
applied to characterize the �� -martensite during cyclic deformation of austenitic stainless
steel.
Acknowledgments. This research was supported by Basic Science Research Program
through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of
Education (2017R1D1A3B03028681).
1. C. W. Ziemian, R. D. Ziemian, and K. V. Haile, “Characterization of stiffness
degradation caused by fatigue damage of additive manufactured parts,” Mater. Design,
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2. H. J. Leber, M. Niffenegger, and B. Tirbonod, “Microstructural aspects of low cycle
fatigued austenitic stainless tube and pipe steels,” Mater. Charact., 58, No. 10,
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3. K. S. Ryu, C. S. Kim, U. B. Baek, and J. S. Lee, “Nondestructive evaluation for
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4. M. A. Drewry and P. D. Wilcox, “One-dimensional time-domain finite-element
modelling of nonlinear wave propagation for non-destructive evaluation,” NDT & E
Int., 61, 45–52 (2014).
5. A. Viswanath, B. P. C. Rao, S. Mahadevan, et al., “Nondestructive assessment of
tensile properties of cold worked AISI type 304 stainless steel using nonlinear
ultrasonic technique,” J. Mater. Process. Tech., 211, No. 3, 538–544 (2011).
6. Y. Q. Cai, J. Z. Sun, C. J. Liu, et al., “Relationship between dislocation density in P91
steel and its nonlinear ultrasonic parameter,” J. Iron Steel Res. Int., 22, 1024–1030
(2015).
Received 15. 09. 2017
ISSN 0556-171X. Ïðîáëåìè ì³öíîñò³, 2018, ¹ 1 55
Assessment of the Low-Cycle Strain-Induced Martensite Transformation ...
Fig. 6. Variation in the acoustic nonlinearity of AISI 316 stainless steel fatigue-failed specimens
under various strain amplitudes (�0 is a nonlinearity parameter of the as-received specimen and �n
is a nonlinearity parameter of the fatigue-failed specimen).
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/NLD (Gebruik deze instellingen om Adobe PDF-documenten te maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit. De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 5.0 en hoger.)
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/ENU (Use these settings to create Adobe PDF documents best suited for high-quality prepress printing. Created PDF documents can be opened with Acrobat and Adobe Reader 5.0 and later.)
>>
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(Common)
(1.0)
]
/OtherNamespaces [
<<
/AsReaderSpreads false
/CropImagesToFrames true
/ErrorControl /WarnAndContinue
/FlattenerIgnoreSpreadOverrides false
/IncludeGuidesGrids false
/IncludeNonPrinting false
/IncludeSlug false
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(InDesign)
(4.0)
]
/OmitPlacedBitmaps false
/OmitPlacedEPS false
/OmitPlacedPDF false
/SimulateOverprint /Legacy
>>
<<
/AddBleedMarks false
/AddColorBars false
/AddCropMarks false
/AddPageInfo false
/AddRegMarks false
/ConvertColors /ConvertToCMYK
/DestinationProfileName ()
/DestinationProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
/Downsample16BitImages true
/FlattenerPreset <<
/PresetSelector /MediumResolution
>>
/FormElements false
/GenerateStructure false
/IncludeBookmarks false
/IncludeHyperlinks false
/IncludeInteractive false
/IncludeLayers false
/IncludeProfiles false
/MultimediaHandling /UseObjectSettings
/Namespace [
(Adobe)
(CreativeSuite)
(2.0)
]
/PDFXOutputIntentProfileSelector /DocumentCMYK
/PreserveEditing true
/UntaggedCMYKHandling /LeaveUntagged
/UntaggedRGBHandling /UseDocumentProfile
/UseDocumentBleed false
>>
]
>> setdistillerparams
<<
/HWResolution [2400 2400]
/PageSize [612.000 792.000]
>> setpagedevice
|