Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy
This paper outlines the results of twenty-eight years of collaborations between the authors and colleagues in Kiev, initiated when the first author began PhD research at Sheffield University under the supervision of the late Professor Marek Zvelebil in 1992. From the outset of this doctoral res...
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Lillie, M.C. Budd, C.E. 2022-12-24T15:15:01Z 2022-12-24T15:15:01Z 2020 Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy / M.C. Lillie, C.E. Budd // Археологія і давня історія України: Зб. наук. пр. — К.: ІА НАН України, 2020. — Вип. 4 (37). — С. 251-267. — Бібліогр.: 82 назв. — англ. 2227-4952 DOI: 10.37445/adiu.2020.04.20 https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/187394 902.65(477) This paper outlines the results of twenty-eight years of collaborations between the authors and colleagues in Kiev, initiated when the first author began PhD research at Sheffield University under the supervision of the late Professor Marek Zvelebil in 1992. From the outset of this doctoral research Professor Dmitri Telegin, to whom this paper is dedicated, and Dr. Inna Potekhina, were fundamental not only to the success of the original research programme, but in terms of the considerable generosity, insight and friendship that was extended to the lead author as he navigated his way through the earlier Holocene parts of Ukrainian prehistory. The current study is as much a result of the work of the current authors as it is of collaboration and collegiality of these colleagues. The topics considered throughout this paper focus around the key observations and themes that have been developed since the research began. It also aims to highlight those areas where inconsistencies occur, and where clarification is deemed warranted due to the activities of researchers who have failed to fully appreciate the nuances of Ukrainian prehistory and multi-disciplinary research agendas. It is apparent that, in light of a recent «gold rush» to claim ownership of the materials available in Ukraine, at prehistoric sites of all periods, there is clearly a need for a considered and careful approach to the data generated from dietary isotope and related studies. Furthermore, our research since the early 1990s has shown that misidentification of fragmentary or isolated bone in both primary and secondary contexts can lead to erroneous interpretations and occasional «flights of fancy». This paper will outline a number of the issues identified, and also explore issues around data use and representation in an attempt to offer some balance to discussions of prehistoric diet and chronology in Ukraine. Автори розглядають результати вивчення скелетного матеріалу періоду від епіпалеоліту та енеоліту та наводять деякі спостереження щодо ефективності досліджень, проведених різними вченими. Перш за все, автори узагальнюють результати досліджень, які проводились М. Ліллі з колегами з початку 1990-х рр., та проводять огляд нових результатів (рис. 1—3), які підтверджують той факт, що риба залишалася важливим продуктом харчування протягом названих періодів. Отримані дані також підкреслюють той факт, що в епоху енеоліту різні культурні групи дотримувалися різних харчових стратегій. Це, очевидно, визначається західними впливами та інтеграцією землеробства і скотарства (трипільська фермерська група з печери Вертеба), та традиціями мисливців-рибалок-збирачів з Ігрені VIII та Молюхового Бугра у Подніпров’ї. Цікаво, що хронологічна відмінність між цими двома пам’ятками супроводжується і харчовою мінливістю. На старшій пам’ятці Ігрень VIII отримані ізотопні дані про відносно високу залежність від прісноводних ресурсів у період 4300—4000 cal BC, тоді як на пізнішій пам’ятці Молюхів Бугор, дані свідчать про зменшення залежності від прісноводних ресурсів протягом 3950—3700 cal BC. Ці результати супроводжуються доказами використання більш широкого спектру природних ресурсів у регіоні Дніпровських порогів та навколо нього. Показано також, що на радіовуглецеві дати на пам’ятках у басейні Дніпра впливає прісноводний резервуарний ефект. Цього не спостерігається на матеріалах з печери Вертеба, оскільки ефект прісноводного резервуару не пов’язаний з дієтичними ланцюгами, які залежать від наземних ресурсів. Отримані авторами результати датування (рис. 4— 6), дослідження мобільності та дієтних ізотопів обговорюються у контексті результатів інших дослідників. Висловлюється припущення, що діяльність різних дослідницьких груп у печері Вертеба породжує низку проблем, що викликає необхідність продуманішого підходу до даних, представлених іншими групами. Можна стверджувати, що незважаючи на спільну тематику і близькі програми, окремим дослідницьким групам бракує детальних знань та співпраці. Стаття завершується закликом до цілеспрямованого мультидисциплінарного аналізу при дослідженні всіх могильників з метою подальшого вдосконалення нашого розуміння соціально-економічних та суспільних подій протягом раннього та середнього голоцену на території України. A NERC-AHRC National Radiocarbon Facility (NRCF) grant (to MCL) provided funding for the AMS Dating presented in the Lillie et al. 2015; 2017 papers (Project — No. NF/2011/2/18). In addition, WAERC (Wetland Archaeology & Environments Research Centre) at the University of Hull (now based at Umeå University in Sweden) funded a considerable amount of the dating and isotope work that has been undertaken since 1991—1992. en Інститут археології НАН України Археологія і давня історія України Антропологія Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy Ізотопний дієтний аналіз та пов’язані з ним дослідження первісної історії Україні: факти, вигадки та фантастика Article published earlier |
| institution |
Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| collection |
DSpace DC |
| title |
Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy |
| spellingShingle |
Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy Lillie, M.C. Budd, C.E. Антропологія |
| title_short |
Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy |
| title_full |
Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy |
| title_fullStr |
Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy |
| title_sort |
diet isotope analysis and related studies in prehistoric ukraine: fact, fiction and fantasy |
| author |
Lillie, M.C. Budd, C.E. |
| author_facet |
Lillie, M.C. Budd, C.E. |
| topic |
Антропологія |
| topic_facet |
Антропологія |
| publishDate |
2020 |
| language |
English |
| container_title |
Археологія і давня історія України |
| publisher |
Інститут археології НАН України |
| format |
Article |
| title_alt |
Ізотопний дієтний аналіз та пов’язані з ним дослідження первісної історії Україні: факти, вигадки та фантастика |
| description |
This paper outlines the results of twenty-eight years
of collaborations between the authors and colleagues
in Kiev, initiated when the first author began PhD research
at Sheffield University under the supervision of
the late Professor Marek Zvelebil in 1992. From the outset
of this doctoral research Professor Dmitri Telegin, to
whom this paper is dedicated, and Dr. Inna Potekhina,
were fundamental not only to the success of the original
research programme, but in terms of the considerable
generosity, insight and friendship that was extended to
the lead author as he navigated his way through the
earlier Holocene parts of Ukrainian prehistory. The
current study is as much a result of the work of the current
authors as it is of collaboration and collegiality of
these colleagues.
The topics considered throughout this paper focus
around the key observations and themes that have been
developed since the research began. It also aims to highlight
those areas where inconsistencies occur, and where
clarification is deemed warranted due to the activities
of researchers who have failed to fully appreciate the
nuances of Ukrainian prehistory and multi-disciplinary
research agendas. It is apparent that, in light of a
recent «gold rush» to claim ownership of the materials
available in Ukraine, at prehistoric sites of all periods,
there is clearly a need for a considered and careful approach
to the data generated from dietary isotope and
related studies. Furthermore, our research since the
early 1990s has shown that misidentification of fragmentary
or isolated bone in both primary and secondary
contexts can lead to erroneous interpretations and
occasional «flights of fancy». This paper will outline a
number of the issues identified, and also explore issues
around data use and representation in an attempt to
offer some balance to discussions of prehistoric diet and
chronology in Ukraine.
Автори розглядають результати вивчення скелетного
матеріалу періоду від епіпалеоліту та енеоліту та
наводять деякі спостереження щодо ефективності досліджень,
проведених різними вченими. Перш за все,
автори узагальнюють результати досліджень, які проводились
М. Ліллі з колегами з початку 1990-х рр., та
проводять огляд нових результатів (рис. 1—3), які підтверджують
той факт, що риба залишалася важливим
продуктом харчування протягом названих періодів.
Отримані дані також підкреслюють той факт, що в
епоху енеоліту різні культурні групи дотримувалися
різних харчових стратегій. Це, очевидно, визначається
західними впливами та інтеграцією землеробства
і скотарства (трипільська фермерська група з печери
Вертеба), та традиціями мисливців-рибалок-збирачів
з Ігрені VIII та Молюхового Бугра у Подніпров’ї.
Цікаво, що хронологічна відмінність між цими двома
пам’ятками супроводжується і харчовою мінливістю.
На старшій пам’ятці Ігрень VIII отримані ізотопні
дані про відносно високу залежність від прісноводних
ресурсів у період 4300—4000 cal BC, тоді як на пізнішій
пам’ятці Молюхів Бугор, дані свідчать про зменшення
залежності від прісноводних ресурсів протягом
3950—3700 cal BC. Ці результати супроводжуються
доказами використання більш широкого спектру
природних ресурсів у регіоні Дніпровських порогів та
навколо нього. Показано також, що на радіовуглецеві
дати на пам’ятках у басейні Дніпра впливає прісноводний
резервуарний ефект. Цього не спостерігається
на матеріалах з печери Вертеба, оскільки ефект прісноводного
резервуару не пов’язаний з дієтичними ланцюгами,
які залежать від наземних ресурсів.
Отримані авторами результати датування (рис. 4—
6), дослідження мобільності та дієтних ізотопів обговорюються
у контексті результатів інших дослідників.
Висловлюється припущення, що діяльність різних
дослідницьких груп у печері Вертеба породжує низку
проблем, що викликає необхідність продуманішого підходу
до даних, представлених іншими групами. Можна
стверджувати, що незважаючи на спільну тематику і
близькі програми, окремим дослідницьким групам бракує
детальних знань та співпраці. Стаття завершується
закликом до цілеспрямованого мультидисциплінарного
аналізу при дослідженні всіх могильників з метою
подальшого вдосконалення нашого розуміння соціально-економічних та суспільних подій протягом раннього
та середнього голоцену на території України.
|
| issn |
2227-4952 |
| url |
https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/187394 |
| citation_txt |
Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy / M.C. Lillie, C.E. Budd // Археологія і давня історія України: Зб. наук. пр. — К.: ІА НАН України, 2020. — Вип. 4 (37). — С. 251-267. — Бібліогр.: 82 назв. — англ. |
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2025-11-26T18:13:35Z |
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251ISSN 2227-4952 (Print), ISSN 2708-6143 (Online). Археологія і давня історія України, 2020, вип. 4 (37)
УДК 902.65(477) DOI: 10.37445/adiu.2020.04.20
M. C. Lillie, C. E. Budd
DIET ISOTOPE ANALYSIS AND RELATED STUDIES
IN PREHISTORIC UKRAINE: FACT, FICTION AND FANTASY
This paper outlines the results of twenty-eight years
of collaborations between the authors and colleagues
in Kiev, initiated when the first author began PhD re-
search at Sheffield University under the supervision of
the late Professor Marek Zvelebil in 1992. From the out-
set of this doctoral research Professor Dmitri Telegin, to
whom this paper is dedicated, and Dr. Inna Potekhina,
were fundamental not only to the success of the original
research programme, but in terms of the considerable
generosity, insight and friendship that was extended to
the lead author as he navigated his way through the
earlier Holocene parts of Ukrainian prehistory. The
current study is as much a result of the work of the cur-
rent authors as it is of collaboration and collegiality of
these colleagues.
The topics considered throughout this paper focus
around the key observations and themes that have been
developed since the research began. It also aims to high-
light those areas where inconsistencies occur, and where
clarification is deemed warranted due to the activities
of researchers who have failed to fully appreciate the
nuances of Ukrainian prehistory and multi-discipli-
nary research agendas. It is apparent that, in light of a
recent «gold rush» to claim ownership of the materials
available in Ukraine, at prehistoric sites of all periods,
there is clearly a need for a considered and careful ap-
proach to the data generated from dietary isotope and
related studies. Furthermore, our research since the
early 1990s has shown that misidentification of frag-
mentary or isolated bone in both primary and second-
ary contexts can lead to erroneous interpretations and
occasional «flights of fancy». This paper will outline a
number of the issues identified, and also explore issues
around data use and representation in an attempt to
offer some balance to discussions of prehistoric diet and
chronology in Ukraine.
Keywords: Ukraine, prehistory, dietary isotope
analysis, δ13C, δ15N, AMS dating, freshwater reservoir
effects.
Introduction. Studies of diet using stable
isotope analysis alongside dental and skeletal
pathology can provide detailed insights into the
nature of the subsistence strategies employed by
prehistoric groups, and their past lifeways. Ini
tial investigations in the 1990s, into the dietary
pathways of the Dnieper-Donets culture, through
analysis of skeletal remains from the Mariupol-
type cemeteries, showed that these groups placed
an emphasis on the consumption of terrestrial
animals and freshwater resources, alongside veg
etal foodstuffs (the latter being less well reflected
in isotopic studies that use bone collagen — see
discussion below). Alongside palaeopathological
and osteological studies of the human populations
from the Dnieper cemeteries the research agenda
has integrated AMS radiocarbon dating in an ef
fort to provide an absolute chronological frame
work to the cemeteries studied. As discussed be
low, studies that fail to undertake such analyses
run the risk of misinterpretation of the results
from parallel studies of diet and pathology, and
can, as will be highlighted, produce fundamental
ly flawed interpretations and misrepresentation
of the evidence for past human lifeways.
Our investigations to date have confirmed
that across the prehistoric periods, from at least
10,200 cal BC through to ca. 3500 cal BC (and
probably beyond) the consumption of freshwater
resources, including species of fish such as carp
and pearl roach, formed an integral, and fun
damental, part of subsistence strategies in the
Dnieper region (Lillie et al. 2011; Potekhina et al.
2014). It has also been possible to demonstrate
the existence of a freshwater reservoir effect that
is influencing the absolute (radiocarbon) dating
of the individuals that are interred in the cem
eteries of the Dnieper region, where freshwater © M. C. LILLIE, C. E. BUDD, 2020
252 ISSN 2227-4952 (Print), ISSN 2708-6143 (Online). Археологія і давня історія України, 2020, вип. 4 (37)
Антропологія
resources are shown to be integral to subsistence
strategies. As such, the available absolute dat
ing of these cemeteries, when undertaken on the
human remains themselves, or on freshwater re
sources, must be considered with caution when
discussing the socio-cultural evolution of the pop
ulations being studied (Lillie et al. 2009).
Importantly, the continued reliance on the ex
ploitation of wild resources across the Mesolithic
and Neolithic period’s means that the definition
of the Neolithic does not necessarily follow the
convention of a shift towards the exploitation of
domesticates in many areas of Eastern Europe,
as the transition lacks the major socio-economic
transformations that generally demarcate the
transition from a food extraction to a food produc
tion economy (Lillie et al. 2020). Indeed, as previ
ously noted by Dolukhanov and Khotinsky (1984),
whilst the appearance of a production economy
would normally indicate Neolithisation, other
criteria, such as the first appearance of ceramics,
improved working tools, new forms of hunting
and an increased reliance on fishing are also used
to define the transition to a «Neolithic» way of life
in Ukraine, and many parts of Eastern Europe
(also Motuzaitë Matuzevičiűtë, Telizhenko 2016).
In addition, Telegin and Titova (1993) attributed
all those cultures which are characterised by the
presence of ceramics, but lacking metal, to the
Neolithic period. Furthermore, it should also be
noted that, given the areal extent of the region of
study, it is perhaps unsurprising that the nature
and timing of this transition displays significant
asynchronicity when studied in both a west—east
and a south—north direction across Ukraine (Lil
lie et al. 2020, p. 188).
In general, research into the prehistoric popu
lations of Ukraine has been developed within a
rigorous methodological and scientific framework,
but on occasion a lack of detailed knowledge and
understanding of context has resulted in the
publication of ill-conceived or poorly thought out
research that has weakened the validity of new
studies in this region (see Budd et al. 2020 for
an overview of these studies). The current paper
seeks to highlight areas where a more rigorous
scientific and theoretical basis may be warranted,
to consider aspects of recent studies undertaken
by researchers who are relatively new to Ukrain
ian prehistoric studies, and to outline areas that
would benefit from a more considered approach,
or from clarification of the results obtained; both
in terms of context and previous studies (see cri
tiques in Lillie 2020; Lillie et al. 2020).
1. background. The Dnieper Rapids region of
Ukraine contains a wealth of cemeteries and bur
ials dating from the earliest Holocene through to
the later prehistoric periods and beyond (Telegin
1986; Telegin, Potekhina 1987; Lillie 1996; 1998a;
1998b). These cemeteries, the Dnieper-Donets
Mariupol-type cemeteries (DD M-t), formed the
basis of the first authors PhD research across the
1990s, and more recently (over the past decade)
has formed an integral element of the second au
thors’ postgraduate and postdoctoral research at
Oxford and Umeå Universities. Across this re
search period a number of reassessments of the
chronological development of the cemeteries and
the socio-cultural developments in evidence have
been undertaken in collaboration (e. g. Potekhina,
Telegin 1995; Lillie 1998a; 1998b; 1998c; Telegin
et al. 2000; 2002; 2003a; 2003b; Lillie et al. 2009;
Budd, Lillie 2020), and an overview of this work
is presented in our most recent collaboration (Lil
lie et al. 2020).
Interpretations into the significance of the con
centration of cemeteries at the Dnieper Rapids,
and along the Dnieper itself, have reinforced ob
servations relating to the importance of a reliable
resource base to earlier Holocene fisher-hunter-
foragers in a region where the areas away from
the river valleys are poorly watered and lack the
rich vegetation niches found in the river valleys
themselves. Dolukhanov and Khotinskiy (1984,
p. 319) have previously argued that Mesolithic
groups exploited the fauna of the steppe, for
est and tundra zones, with fishing and gather
ing becoming increasingly important factors in
their adaptation to the more differentiated early
Holocene landscapes (also Gimbutas 1956). In ad
dition, Lillie (2003a, p. 4) has also suggested that
the focus of large-scale cemeteries at the Dnieper
Rapids argues for, at least, a seasonal aggrega
tion of population at this location in order to ex
ploit the stable resources, such as freshwater and
anadromous fish, along with the plants and fauna
of the riparian zone. Such aggregations would ob
viously offer the opportunity for a wide range of
socio-political as well as economical interactions
between the various groups in and around the
Dnieper and its tributaries, and this aspect of in
ter-group interactions should not be overlooked.
At the cemeteries in this region the burial in
ventories themselves, and finds from archaeologi
cal sites, provide evidence that reinforces the im
portance of fishing through the presence of fishing
related artefacts such as harpoons, net sinkers,
fish-hooks, and fish-tooth necklaces, which are,
by their very nature, more likely to be reported
(e. g., Telegin 1986; Telegin, Potekhina 1987; Lil
lie, Richards 2000; O’Connell et al. 2000). The
archaeological evidence from Neolithic and Eneo
lithic sites in the Dnieper region indicates that
the range of faunal and freshwater resources
available during these periods, as shown by the
finds from the Neolithic settlements of Sobachky,
Sredny Stog I and Buzky (Telegin, Potekhina
1987), and the Eneolithic site of Dereivka II (Tel
egin 1986), included a broad range of both wild
and also some domesticated species. For the Neo
lithic period these included aurochs, red and roe
deer, wild pig and beaver, alongside domesticates
such as cattle, sheep / goat, pig, horse and dog
(Dolukhanov 1979; Mallory 1987). In most cases
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however, the evidence does not support the signif
icant integration of domesticated species within a
production economy, and instead the data prob
ably suggest increasing trade and exchange be
tween the fisher-hunter-foragers in the Dnieper
region and adjacent groups of pastoralists and /
or farmers.
Freshwater fish species such as European cat
fish, perch, roach, rudd, asp and carp, along with
European pond terrapin and otter, as well as
waterfowl such as mallard, pintail duck, goose,
teal and coot are all in evidence at the Eneolithic
site of Dereivka (Telegin 1986, p. 84). In addition,
freshwater mussel and river snails are also at
tested. It should be anticipated that a similarly
broad range of resources would have been avail
able in earlier periods.
Whilst the archaeological data (e. g. Dolukhanov
1979; Telegin 1986; 1987; Telegin, Potekhina
1987; Kozłowski 1989) attests to the exploitation
of a range of faunal and freshwater species, only
limited research into palaeopathological analysis
or dietary studies were undertaken prior to the
work of Jacobs (1993; 1994) and Lillie (1996; 1997;
1998a). Research by Lillie (1996; 1998a), initially
aimed at characterising the transition to the Neo
lithic from the perspective of palaeopathological
analysis, soon identified the need for enhanced
chronological studies (as discussed above), and
integrated stable isotope studies through an ini
tial collaboration with Mike Richards at Oxford
University (Lillie, Richards 2000). The studies
that have been undertaken since this early stage
of the research agenda are summarised below.
2. Dietary Isotope Studies. Since the initial
integration of dietary isotope studies into the re
search agenda a number of papers have sought
to expand the dataset through whole cemetery
analysis and / or through integrated analysis of
materials, whether from human, faunal or fish
remains, as they became available (e. g. Lillie et
al. 2003; 2011; 2016; Lillie, Jacobs 2006; Lillie,
Budd 2011; Potekhina et al. 2014; Budd, Lillie
2020; Budd et al. 2020).
Diet isotope studies have their limitations of
course, and as noted in Lillie and Budd (2011,
p. 44), there are differences in the δ13C values
obtained when using the different tissues, for
example bone collagen or apatite-carbonate, and
consequently it is also important to note that
the stable isotope analysis of bone collagen pre
dominantly reflects the protein component of
the diet (Krueger, Sullivan 1984; Ambrose, Norr
1993; Tieszen, Fagre 1993; Schulting, Richards
2001). As many plant foodstuffs are difficult to
«see» isotopically because the protein levels of
unprocessed plants are usually quite low when
compared to meat (from fauna and fish), there is
an inherent «bias» towards meat proteins when
using bone collagen in isotope studies, as opposed
to reflecting the diet as a whole (Müldner, Rich
ards 2005 and references therein). However, de
spite the fact that diet isotope studies using bone
collagen are not ‘whole diet’ indicators, stable
isotope analysis does provide a direct measure
of the nature of past human diet, as the carbon
isotope value (δ13C), indicates the amount of ma
rine protein in the diet, as compared to terres
trial protein, and bone collagen analysis also dis
tinguishes between different dietary components,
such as C3 and C4 photosynthetic plants and the
animals that consumed them (Schwarcz, Schoe
ninger 1991; Richards 2002). Nitrogen stable iso
tope ratios (δ15N) are used to establish the trophic
level of an organism in the food web, with δ15N en
richment of c. 3—6 ‰ (e. g. Δ15Ndiet-body) observed
as one progresses up the food chain (Schoeninger,
DeNiro 1984; Minagawa, Wada 1984; Hedges,
Reynard 2007).
Throughout the research programme the sam
ples for diet isotope studies have been processed at
the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the
History of Art, University of Oxford. In the initial
studies (e. g. Lillie, Richards 2000; Lillie, Jacobs
2006) the collagen was extracted from the human
bone samples following the protocol outlined in
Richards (1998). In the more recent work (Budd
2015; Lillie et al. 2011, p. 61) the bone collagen
was obtained from the skeletal material using a
modified version of the «Longin» (1971) extrac
tion method. Samples are subjected to a number
of acid and H2O (MilliQ) washes and freeze dried.
The resulting collagen is then analysed using an
automated carbon and nitrogen analyzer and a
continuous-flow isotope ratio-monitoring mass-
spectrometer (Carlo Erba carbon and nitrogen el
emental analyser coupled to a Europa Geo 20/20
mass-spectrometer). Typical replicate measure
ment errors are of the order of ±0.2 ‰ for δ13C
and δ15N. Only samples which produced collagen
yields with a C:N ratio between 2.9 and 3.6 (De
Niro 1985) were used in the analysis of palaeodi
et. The following sections summarise the current
situation with regards to the analyses that have
been undertaken to date, the most recent updates
for which appear in Budd and Lillie (2020), and
Budd et al. (2020).
2.1. epipalaeolithic and mesolithic Sub-
sistence. The cemeteries and sites analysed in
the investigation of earlier Holocene subsistence
practices include human remains from Vasilyev
ka III and II, Marievka and Osipovka, and the
Crimean site of Fat’ma Koba. It also includes
fauna remains from the Epipalaeolithic sites of
Vasilyevka III, Voloshkoe and Vyazivok, and the
Mesolithic sites of Fat’ma Koba and Rogalik 2
(fig. 1). Research by Lillie and co-workers e. g. Lil
lie (2003a), Lillie et al. (2003), Lillie and Jacobs
(2006), Lillie et al. (2011) has previously sug
gested that during the Epipalaeolithic and Me
solithic periods the slightly higher δ15N values at
the later Mesolithic site of Vasilyevka II (13.40 ±
0.65 ‰ (at 1σ)), when compared to 12.75 ± 0.61 ‰
from Vasilyevka III, is suggestive of either a
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higher input from freshwater resources in the
later Mesolithic period, or alternatively, the ex
ploitation of differing fish species from a range
of trophic levels in the riverine ecosystem (Lillie
et al. 2011, p. 63). In addition, the δ13C values at
Vasilyevka II (–20.94 ± 0.51 ‰) are depleted by
2 ‰ when compared to Vasilyevka III (–22.22 ±
0.24 ‰; ibid. 2011, p. 61—63). Importantly, one
individual of Mesolithic date from the predomi
nantly Neolithic cemetery of Dereivka I, individ
ual 84, also exhibits δ13C and δ15N values that are
fully commensurate with the mainstream values
evident through the Epipalaeolithic and Meso
lithic periods at (–23.6 ‰ and 11.4 ‰, although it
is noted that the δ15N value is towards the lower
end of the ranges reported.
In this context, the data has shown that at the
site of Marievka burials 4 and 14 have δ15N ratios
that would be commensurate with a diet wherein
the majority of dietary proteins are obtained from
terrestrial as opposed to freshwater resources. As
noted by Budd and Lillie (2020, p. 291) on the
basis of the dating at Marievka, these two indi
viduals represent the chronologically earliest evi
dence for the exploitation of terrestrial as opposed
to aquatic dominated diets. Unfortunately due to
the limited number of interments at Marievka,
and the state of preservation, the analysis by Lil
lie (1998a; 2020) was only able to produce tenta
tive sex / age determinations of M? aged 50—60
for individual 4 and an indeterminate adult aged
35—45 designation for individual 14, so at this
stage in the research agenda there is little value
in attempting to establish why the diet of these
particular individuals differed when compared to
all other individuals studied from the Epipalaeo
lithic to Mesolithic periods.
It should also be noted that at Fat’ma Koba
in Crimea, δ13C and δ15N values of –18.3 ‰ and
10.5 ‰ respectively, for human remains recovered
from Layer 4 (which is of either Murzak-Koba or
Kukrek culture periodisation; Budd, Lillie 2020,
p. 292), has also been interpreted as represent
ing a diet wherein the majority of the dietary
proteins are obtained from terrestrial resources.
The δ13C of –18.3 ‰ has been suggested as indi
cating the limited inclusion of some C4 resources
at this location, due to the fact that at the time
this individual would have been exploiting the
environment (ca. 9000—7500 BP) Crimea was a
peninsula in a freshwater context within an arid
steppe environment (ibid. 2002, p. 292).
There are additional individuals of Mesolithic
date from the cemeteries of Dereivka I (Individ
ual 84 — discussed above) and Osipovka (Indi
vidual 20b). As noted above, the values for the
individual from Dereivka I are towards to lower
end of the range identified, being closer to the
terrestrial dominated baseline than the majority
of the individuals analysed for the Mesolithic. At
6361—5879 cal BC (OxA-6161; 7270 ± 110 BP)
this individual is placed, chronologically, to
Fig. 1. Human and faunal δ13C and δ15N values for the Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic cemete-
ries in the study region (after Budd, Lillie 2020)
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Lillie, M. C., Budd, C. E. Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy
wards the end of the Mesolithic period. Unfor
tunately the individual from Osipovka produced
isotope ratios that must be considered anomalous
at this stage of the analysis (as they are well be
low the entire dataset for this period to date) with
values of 21.0 ‰ for δ13C and 5.7 ‰ for δ15N. Given
that the material from this individual comprised
fragmentary post cranial skeletal elements the
possibility that this represents a fauna value as
opposed to a human diet isotope value cannot be
discounted with certainty, and without assess
ment using a technique such as ZooMs (Zooar
chaeology by Mass Spectrometry) to establish
species identification (Buckley et al. 2009), this
value is currently discounted from discussions of
Mesolithic dietary pathways.
2.2. neolithic Subsistence. During the Neo
lithic period there is a continued reliance on fresh
water resources, to the point where these domi
nate the diet at certain locations (fig. 2), although
variability in consumption is again in evidence.
The data have demonstrated that, at certain lo
cations, there are individuals who have nitrogen
ratios that are indicative of a reliance on terres
trial resources, as opposed to the predominant di
etary pathways wherein a reliance on freshwater
resources is attested.
In this context, as can be seen from fig. 2, two
individuals from the cemetery of Dereivka I have
δ13C values of 23.4 ‰ and 21.7 ‰, and δ15N val
ues of 9.9 ‰ and 10.5 ‰ respectively (individu
als 49 and 33). In addition, individual 93 from
Dereivka I has a similarly low nitrogen value at
9.54 ‰ and a carbon value of 26.78 ‰, the latter
value is very depleted but it is consistent with the
faunal and fish values that have been obtained
from this region. Other individuals at this loca
tion have nitrogen values that, whilst towards
the range of diets with a freshwater component
in the Dnieper Rapids region in one instance,
may well be more terrestrial based in light of the
available baseline data for the forest-steppe zone
(e. g. individuals 30 and 42). The values for these
individuals are 23.61 ‰ and 23.2 ‰ for δ13C and
12.07 ‰ and 11.08 ‰ for δ15N respectively.
There are two individuals from Vasilyevka V
with δ15N values of 10.0 ‰ and 10.1 ‰, and a
third individual who is elevated slightly at 10.6 ‰
(Individuals 8, 29 and 10), which would indicate
the consumption of terrestrial based diets. Over
all, it does appear that in general, δ15N values
around ca. 11 ‰ and below are indicative of diets
that were weighted more towards terrestrial than
aquatic resources.
Of some considerable interest in terms of the
dietary δ15N values that are recorded, are that
two individuals from the cemetery of Yasinovatka
(fig. 2) appear to have δ13C and δ15N that would ap
pear to indicate divergent dietary pathways to the
majority of this population (Budd et al. 2020).
It is worth noting that an additional individ
ual 26, at Yasinovatka also produced a low δ15N
Fig. 2. Human and faunal δ13C and δ15N values for the Neolithic cemeteries in the study region
(after Budd, Lillie 2020)
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value at 7.6 ‰, but this individual was out of the
acceptable range for C:N at 4.6, and as such, until
further analysis (e. g. re-analysis for diet isotopes
and ZooMs) can be undertaken, this individual is
also discounted from further consideration.
Overall, whilst there is clear evidence to sup
port variability in dietary pathways during the
Neolithic (and preceding Mesolithic) period, it is
apparent that that we need a considerable degree
of caution in accepting that all samples analysed
are in fact human, especially in the case of frag
mentary material, or, as suggested by the current
research, when the available fauna values indi
cate that human nitrogen values below ca. 4—
5 ppm may suggest misidentification of fragmen
tary skeletal materials.
2.3. eneolithic Subsistence. During the Ene
olithic period the fact that a number of culture
groups are available for study affords insights
into differing food procurement strategies, whilst
also highlighting the significant dietary differ
ences that occur between groups following agro-
pastoral as opposed to mixed hunting, fishing and
foraging food procurement pathways (fig. 3).
The data obtained from Igren 8 and Molukhov
Bugor are clearly very distinct, isotopically, when
compared to Verteba Cave (fig. 3). Of course, the
fact that Verteba Cave is in western Ukraine, as
opposed to the Dnieper region, will exert an influ
ence on the isotope ratios in evidence, as will the
fact that the individuals from Verteba are pre
sumed to be Trypillia culture farmers. This cul
ture, whilst having evidence to support the fact
that varied subsistence regimes were practiced
(e. g. Cuik 2008 and references therein), were
essentially agro-pastoralists (see discussion be
low).
The data from the Eneolithic phase at Igren VIII,
which is dated to ca. 4337—4074 cal BC, were
originally analysed by Rowena Henderson using
high-resolution, incremental isotope analysis of
the dentine in order to assess the relative con
tribution of dietary proteins (Henderson 2015;
Lillie et al. 2016). The δ13C and δ15N values from
Igren VIII are the post-weaning diet signal at
12 years of age for the ten individuals studied.
These values, at 22.48 ± 0.9 ‰ and 14.02 ± 1.1 ‰
respectively, clearly indicate the significant con
sumption of freshwater aquatic proteins, such
as fish and molluscs (Budd, Lillie 2020). By con
trast, the data from the chronologically later site
of Molukhov Bugor, at ca. 3951—3705 cal BC, ex
hibit carbon and nitrogen isotope values for the
human inhabitants at δ13C = 21.8 ± 0.9 ‰ and
δ15N = 12.2 ± 0.7 ‰, which, whilst indicative of
the continued importance of aquatic proteins well
into the Eneolithic period, are suggestive of more
diversified subsistence strategies at Molukhov
Bugor. As noted by Budd and Lillie (2020, p. 297),
the more positive carbon, and lower nitrogen val
ues at Molukhov Bugor probably reflect a mixed
subsistence base, where aquatic proteins were
Fig. 3. Human and faunal δ13C and δ15N values for the Eneolithic cemeteries in the study region
(after Budd, Lillie 2020)
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consumed alongside wild and domestic herbiv
ores, or that there is possibly a difference in the
composition of fish species available at the Sula
river. By contrast, the data from Igren VIII are
indicative of the heavy consumption of freshwa
ter proteins with no isotopic or material culture
evidence to suggest the consumption of dietary
proteins from the terrestrial landscape in any sig
nificant quantity (Telegin, Zaliznyak 1975; Hend
erson 2015; Lillie et al. 2016; 2020).
3. Radiocarbon dating and the absolute
chronology of the Dnieper-Donets Mar-
iupol-type cemeteries. It is an established
fact that there is a freshwater radiocarbon res
ervoir effect (FRE) influencing 14C dating of the
Dnieper-Donets Mariupol-type cemeteries (Lillie
et al. 2009). However, despite the fact that there
is clear evidence for a freshwater radiocarbon
reservoir effect in the Dnieper River region, it is
naпve to suggest that it is a simple case of calcu
lating a «linear correction factor» using the exist
ing limited dataset alongside δ15N values to ac
count for the 14C offset for these cemeteries (e. g.
Kotova 2018).
The freshwater reservoir effect, in oversimpli
fied terms, can cause an anomalous 14C offset in
the radiocarbon age of a sample that is either
from a freshwater context, or is from a human /
animal that has consumed freshwater resources;
specifically the effect can produce a 14C age that is
artificially «older» than its true radiocarbon age
(Ascough et al. 2005; Philippsen 2013).
Radiocarbon dating at three sites in the
Dnieper region has revealed a 14C reservoir ef
fect of ca. 100—500 years (see Lillie et al. 2009,
p. 62, table 4). At Yasinovatka, there is a chron
ological offset between the fish tooth sample at
6840 ± 37 uncal BP (OxA-17498), and the deer
tooth sample at 6121 ± 34 uncal BP (OxA-17500),
of about 720 years (Lillie et al. 2009, p. 261).
This equates to a ca. 250 uncal year difference
between the fish sample and the human sam
ple which is dated to 6593 ± 35 uncal BP (OxA-
17499), and ca. 470 years between the human
sample (with the latter having a ratio of 22.6 ‰
for δ13C and 14 ‰ for δ15N), and the deer sample.
By contrast, at Dereivka I, the chronological dif
ference between the fish sample (burial 29) at
6915 ± 50 uncal BP (OxA-17501) and the deer
sample (square 801, burial 29) at 6147 ± 35 uncal
BP (OxA-17594) is approximately 770 years. This
equates to a disparity of 517 years between the
fish and human sample which is dated to 6398 ±
35 uncal BP (OxA-17495), and 251 years between
the human and the deer sample. The human sam
ple (individual 29) from Dereivka I has yet to be
analysed for diet isotopes, but the range from 12
individuals at this cemetery for δ15N is 9.9 ‰ to
13.05 ‰ (δ15N 11.96 ± 0.95 ‰).
Given that the Yasinovatka individual has a
δ15N value of 14 ‰ and an offset from the terres
trial baseline (fauna) of 470 years, we must con
sider that, in theory, at Dereivka I the FRE offset
could be anything from zero (9.9 ‰ being a ter
restrial diet signature) through to a ca. 350 year
offset based on the human values obtained to
date. However, it is important to emphasise that
we cannot assume the degree of 14C offset is sys
tematic across the Dnieper region, or assume re
source equivalence in terms of δ15N baseline val
ues between Yasinovatka and Dereivka I, which
are located in different ecozones and different
parts of the Dnieper system.
There are a number of challenges associated
with unravelling freshwater radiocarbon reser
voir effects at prehistoric sites (see Guiry 2019
for a review of the biogeochemical processes in
volved). Furthermore, there is an open debate
in the academic literature concerning which
statistical technique to apply to calculate 14C off
set. Most commonly, various forms of linear re
gression models are used (Schulting et al. 2014;
2015), with other studies preferring a Bayesian
approach (Bronk Ramsey et al. 2014; Sayle et al.
2016).
A dedicated study investigating the freshwa
ter radiocarbon reservoir effect at a number of
prehistoric micro-regions in Lake Baikal, Siberia
has shown that developing a correction for the
FRE is not a straight-forward process. Weber et
al. (2016) analysed 42 pairs of radiocarbon ages
from human bone and terrestrial herbivore bone
or tooth samples alongside δ15N and δ13C values
to calculate a correction factor using the linear
regression methods developed by Schulting et al.
(2014; 2015). Even with the significantly larger
dataset, and multiple technique approach, they
note that not only does the predictive power of
these regression models vary notably between
micro-regions (in some cases the regression equa
tions explain less than 50 % of the variation ob
served), there are also a number of cases where
δ13C values are better predictors of 14C variation
than δ15N values (Weber et al. 2016, p. 82).
To reiterate, the comprehensive freshwater res
ervoir effect study at Lake Baikal has 42 paired
dates within an overall dataset of 256 AMS de
terminations, and despite this dataset the au
thors could not fully resolve the 14C offset. In the
Dnieper region we have 2 paired dates. As such,
it is apparent that, at present, there is no simple
correction factor that can be uniformly applied to
radiocarbon ages across the Dnieper River cem
eteries.
4. Verteba Cave. Recent research undertaken
at the site of Verteba Cave in western Ukraine
has resulted in the production of a number of pa
pers, by different research teams, following on
from the initial investigations by Alex Nikitin
and Mykhailo Sokhatsky between 2005 and 2008
(Nikitin et al. 2010; 2017; Nikitin 2011). Whilst
there is no denying the fact that this location is
exceptional for many reasons, not least due to the
extremely long use of this cave as a location for
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the deposition of human remains, certain aspects
of the research that has been produced from in
vestigations at this location require redress.
Amongst the topics that have arisen from the
recent research at this site, and which could be
seen to require some further consideration, is the
suggestion that Verteba Cave can be used to as
sess the shift from fisher-hunter-forager subsist
ence economies to farming economies in Ukraine.
In this context Karsten and co-workers (e. g.
Karsten et al. 2014; 2015b) have contrasted the
pathologies in evidence at Verteba to those iden
tified by Lillie (1998a) in the Dnieper region, sug
gesting that these pathologies demonstrate the
impact of the transition to farming in Ukraine on
overall health status.
The fact that there are consequences in terms
of oral and overall health status at the transi
tion to farming is a well-established fact, but, the
point is that the pathologies that are reported for
the individuals studied at Verteba, which are all
assumed to be Trypillian farmers (an observation
that is brought into question below), do not rep
resent a continuum, in subsistence terms, for the
populations of Ukraine as they transition from
hunting, fishing and foraging to farming. One
key issue lies in the fact that Verteba is ca. 500—
600 km west of the Dnieper Rapids region, where
Lillie (1998a) undertook his study, and a second
issue is that Trypillia groups are not the popula
tions who develop from the groups interred in the
Dnieper-Donets Mariupol-type (DD M-t) cemeter
ies, which is convincingly proved by anthropologi
cal and archaeogenetic studies (Potekhina 2018).
The hunter-fisher-forager groups in and around
the Dnieper do not transition to agriculture until
much later, and even when we see forager-farmer
interactions, only limited elements of the farm
ing «package» are integrated into subsistence
strategies. It is invalid to suggest that patholo
gies recorded on the possible Trypillia (or chrono
logically equivalent) individuals from Verteba (or
those from any period between the Mesolithic and
later historical periods), can be considered to be
suitable for comparative purposes for the simple
fact that the subsistence differences and socio-
cultural trajectories of the DD groups interred
in the Mt cemeteries are distinct from Trypillia,
and cannot realistically be compared because DD
groups do not develop farming; and ultimately,
partially due to a failure to adapt, Trypillia fails
(Kruts 2012, p. 230).
Referring back to the suggestion that it is er
roneous to assume that all of the individuals
studied at Verteba are Trypillian in origin, we
must return to the issues surrounding the lack
of absolute dating of the remains from Verteba
as discussed by Lillie et al. (2015; 2017; 2020),
and whilst Madden et al. (2018, p. 901) have pre
viously stated the following: «Lillie et al. (2017)
have suggested dating and isotopic testing for all
remains at the cave to ensure their provenance,
while this would improve our understanding of
the use of the cave and the Tripolie (Trypillia) cul-
ture it would also require destruction of what is a
unique sample. This population is a non-renew-
able resource informing us of the past, we must
be careful to balance potential knowledge gained
with current technology against preservation of
the remains for the future (Makarewicz and Sealy,
2015)».
This is a somewhat trite statement which be
lies the fact that the approaches adopted by these
researchers at Verteba have failed to adequately
demonstrate that the remains being studied are
contemporary, and as Ledogar et al. (2019) clear
ly demonstrate, Mesolithic through to modern
cultural material and human remains are in evi
dence at this location. In actual fact, and appar
ently contra Madden et al. (2018, p. 901), Ledogar
et al. (2019, p. 141) state that understanding the
chronology of Verteba cave is integral to further
interpretations of the material evidence from
Verteba (our emphasis). The simple fact is that
all of the studies that have been produced that
group together undated material from secondary
contexts are fundamentally and methodologically
flawed, and these studies have simply failed to
meet the basic requirements of rigour in scientific
approach that should be anticipated.
Logic and good science dictates that when the
available evidence clearly indicates that strati
graphical integrity cannot be assured and that
co-mingling of sequences has been clearly dem
onstrated (as outlined in detail below), treating
the material from Verteba as an homogenous col
lection of Trypillia individuals for the purposes
of producing a seemingly numerically significant/
satisfactory dataset is unjustifiable, at best. The
fact that the studies prior to Ledogar et al. (2019)
perpetuate these unsound assertions is perhaps
made more problematic given that a number of
other studies (e. g. Lillie et al. 2015; 2017) em
phasised that, in light of the evidence from these
studies and those of Nikitin (2011; Nikitin et al.
2010; 2017) absolute dating is essential to ensure
that the conclusions of previous studies (e. g.
Karsten et al. 2014; 2015a; 2015b) into the palae
opathological markers in evidence are accurate,
and that all of the individuals used in these stud
ies are, in fact, Trypillian in date.
Further issues arise in the reporting of the
material from Verteba Cave with the observa
tion that in their 2019 study Ledogar et al. (2019,
p. 151) state that «Probability distributions for
the 14C dates suggest that there may have been
either two periods of occupation, or two discrete
events resulting in deposits during the Eneolithic»
(fig. 4). As such, with this basic observation in
place, it is clear that the grouping and treating
of the Verteba material as an homogenous as
semblage immediately fails to account for the fact
that the pathologies in evidence actually repre
sent at least two phases of deposition.
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Lillie, M. C., Budd, C. E. Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy
However, of even greater concern is the fact
that Lillie et al. (2017, p. 313) had previously stat
ed that their «Figure 4 highlights the fact that the
calibrated dates separate out into what appears to
be three discrete phases of activity, an observation
that would be consistent with the evidence from
the palaeopathology» (evidence for healed trauma
suggesting that low levels of repeated interper
sonal violence are attested at Verteba; fig. 5; 6).
Of note here is the fact that no mention is made
of the previous studies undertaken by Lillie and
co-workers (2015; 2017) by Ledogar et al. (2019),
who instead chose to focus on the stable isotope
work by Lillie and co-workers, as this does not
undermine the premise of their 2019 paper. In ad
dition the AMS dates in Lillie et al. (2015; 2017)
also extend the period of use at Verteba, back
to pre 3900 cal BC, thus reinforcing the work of
Nikitin et al. (2010). Importantly, as the Trypil
lia material is co-mingled with material of both
earlier and later date, and there are at least two,
and possibly three depositional events at Verteba
during the Trypillia phases, it is an established
fact that stratigraphic integrity simply cannot
(and should not) be assumed for the material cul
ture and human remains from Verteba.
As noted by Lillie et al. (2020), a total of 33
conventional dates from the Kiev radiocarbon fa
cility, were reported in Nikitin et al. (2010), 14
of which were made on human remains (bone
collagen) from the cave site. These dates prima
rily spanned the periods ca. 3600—2500 cal BC
(Trypillia CI—CII), but large errors, e. g. Ki14308
at 4910 ± 400 BP (rib fragment), extended the
range to 4652—2674 cal BC. The combined dates
on pottery and human bone did extend the use
of the cave back into the period of activity of the
Shypynetska culture grouping of Trypillia, who
used the cave ca. 3745—3550 cal BC (i. e. prima
rily into Trypillia stage BII). Fundamentally, the
work of Nikitin et al. (2010) and Lillie et al. (2017)
has clearly demonstrated that the earlier dates for
Trypillia activity equate to stage BII of Trypillia
and that subsequent activity extends the periods
of cave use into stage CI and CII of this culture.
Lillie et al. (2020) note that in addition to refining
the earlier work of Karsten and co-workers this
is also clearly contra Kadrow and Pokutta (2016,
p. 3) who state that «the oldest traces of human
activity at the Verteba Cave come from the late
CI phase and are associated with the Shipentsy
group, living near the Badrazhy group on the cen-
tral Dniester Plateau». Importantly, Nikitin et al.
(2010, p. 15) also noted that the use of the cave
was not continuous, as attested to by sterile hori
zons between cultural layers, and that use by the
Fig. 4. Probability distributions for the calibrated
dates for the eight samples from Verteba Cave that
are associated with the Eneolithic (after Ledogar et al.
2019)
Fig. 5. AMS distribution plots for the individuals analysed by Lillie et al. (2015; 2017)
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Koshylovetska and Kasperivska groups occurred
between ca. 3550—2747 cal BC.
In addition to the evidence from the radiocarbon
dating at Verteba, DNA analysis undertaken by
Nikitin and co-workers (e. g. Nikitin et al. 2017)
has shown that the individual’s analysed exhibit a
typical Neolithic farmer package of mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA), with lineages traced to Anatolian
farmers and Neolithic farming groups of central
Europe. At the level of mtDNA haplogroup fre
quencies the TC population from Verteba demon
strates a close genetic relationship with popula
tion groups of the Funnel Beaker / Trichterbecker
cultural complex from central and northern Eu
rope (ca. 3950 ± 2500 BCE). Furthermore, two
specimens belong to haplogroup U8b1 at Verteba,
and these individuals can be viewed as a connec
tion of Trypillia Culture (TC) groups with the Up
per Palaeolithic populations of Europe.
The DNA analysis obviously provides impor
tant insights into the genetic origins of the Trypil
lia groups that used Verteba, but, importantly,
an additional issue is highlighted by Nikitin’s
work. This relates to the suggestion that the dat
ing and stable isotope values obtained by Ledogar
et al. (2019) on a 2nd and 4th metacarpal, are from
discrete individuals, an observation that is sub
ject to question. DNA analysis by Nikitin (pers
comm. 16/11/2019) has already shown that there
are two metacarpals (left and right hand) exca
vated in May 2008 which appear, genetically, to
be from the same individual. Importantly for the
current discussion is the observation that one of
the metacarpals was found near the surface (al
luvial deposit, level 1) in the SE corner of quad
rant 1 at Verteba, whilst the other was found at
level 3 (within or on top of the clay matrix of the
cave floor) in the NW corner. As both elements
appear (genetically) to belong to the same person,
the obvious conclusion must be that there is some
considerable mixing between levels. Given the
comingled, secondary depositional, context of the
material at Verteba, caution is clearly warranted
when analyzing material that cannot be shown to
be from discrete individuals.
Thus, the observation that the dating and sta
ble isotope values obtained on a 2nd and 4th met
acarpal, are from discrete individuals at Verteba
Cave (Ledogar et al. 2019, p. 148, table 2, fig. 3)
should be queried (see table 1), especially given
the close correspondence of the isotope values
from these «individuals» (δ13C of –19.8 ‰ and
19.8 ‰ and δ15N of 9.8 ‰ and 9.9 ‰ respectively),
and the identical AMS dates obtained.
Importantly, Ledogar et al. (2019, p. 152)
state that «The 14C ages for bone samples from
site 20, 4955 ± 25 BP (CC167135), 4965 ± 25 BP
(CC167136), and 4900 ± 20 BP (CC169195),
were compared and are not statistically different
(T = 0.78, χ2 = 5.99 at α = 0.05; df = 2) suggesting
that the strata from these deposits are contempo-
raneous». The problem appears to be that there is
an identical date being reported from a different
context. However, the subsequent statement by
these authors (2019, p. 152) that CC169195 is in
fact from site 20 and not location Г3 is problemat
ic, and perhaps highlights some confusion in the
reporting of these finds (which can happen obvi
ously). As noted above, the isotope data and AMS
dates would strongly suggest that these elements
are from the same individual. Consequently, and
given the lack of stratigraphic integrity at Verte
Fig. 6. Calibrated dates plotted on the
radiocarbon curve — note that the loca
tion of the dates would indicate at least
two or three discrete phases of deposition
for these skulls (from Lillie et al. 2017)
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Lillie, M. C., Budd, C. E. Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy
ba, a note of caution is warranted both in terms of
methodological approaches that assume that all
elements are from discrete individuals (a clearly
untenable assumption), and where near identical
data is generated the possibility that the same in
dividual has been analyzed must surely be taken
into account (a point that is touched upon further
below).
As the evidence indicates, the remains at
Verteba are secondary deposits, as such, the
finds of smaller elements from the same individ
ual suggests that the remains were relocated to
Verteba prior to full disarticulation occurring at
the primary point of interment / processing. This
actually adds another interesting new aspect to
the rituals in evidence at Verteba, and would cor
roborate the observations by Lillie et al. (2015;
2017) that the processing and inclusion of the
remains into the cave deposits probably occurred
relatively soon after the death of the individual.
With the above observations in mind it is ob
viously equally fictitious to assert that all of the
Table 1. Identical AMS dates for elements from differing locations at Verteba Cave (after Ledogar et al. 2019)
Site L/F Lab # Sample # Taxon Element Age Fraction
Modern
14C, BP 2σ date, cal BC
20 L2 CC169199 C15-VC13 Homo sapiens 4th metacarpal A 0.54 4900 ± 20 3704—3648
Г3 L3 CC169195 C16-VC12 Homo sapiens 2nd metacarpal A 0.54 4900 ± 20 3704—3648
Abbreviations, here and in table 4: L — level, F — feature, Ob — overburden, Sf — surface, A — adult, S —
subadult.
Table 4. Identical AMS dates for elements from differing locations at Verteba Cave (after Ledogar et al. 2019)
Site L/F Lab # Sample # Taxon Element Age Fraction
Modern
14C BP 2σ date cal BC/AD
Г3 Sf. CC-167139 C15-VC09 Homo sapiens Parietal A 0.85 1315 ± 25 656—780, 76 %;
741—766, 24 %
cal AD
Г3 L.1 CC-169196 C16-VC17 Canis familiaris Metapodial A 0.73 2505 ± 20 778—730, 22 %;
692—659, 17 %;
651—543, 61 %
cal BC
Table 2. Strontium, oxygen and carbon isotopic composition of tooth enamel of three individuals
from Verteba Cave (after Madden et al. 2018)
Sample Element Age, years Tooth formation, crown
complete, years Sex 87Sr/86Sr δ13CvPDB,
‰
δ18OvSMOW,
‰
EA14 3rd left maxillary molar 17—25 12—16 Male 0.70975 11.8 23.8
EA15 Canine 25—35 6—7 Male 0.70931 11.9 23.4
EA16 Left lateral maxillary incisor 25—35 4—5 Male 0.70966 11.5 23.7
Table 3. Sr, δ13C and δ18O results from human and pig samples at Verteba (after Lillie et al. 2017)
Species Individual Sample ID Element Sex 87Sr/86Sr δ13C δ18O
Human 7 V1.1.1 Max right M2 M 0.709660 13.12 5.80
Human 3 V3.18.1 (1.2) Max left P3 F 0.709741 12.86 6.98
Human 4 V3.14.1 Max right P4 M 0.709616 11.99 6.83
Human 6 V3.15.1 Max Right M1 M 0.709692 12.86 6.48
Human 2 V3.16.1 Max right P3 M 0.709312 12.64 6.31
Human 1 V3.17.1 Max Left M1 M 0.709842 12.30 6.39
Human 8 A22 Incisor I 0.709344 12.17 5.83
Human 9 M5 Mand right PM2 M 0.709475 9.12 5.94
Pig-F2 — F2.6.2 Incisor — 0.709100 — —
Pig — F2.6.4 Mand right PM2 — 0.709700 — —
Text Highlighted in Grey are samples that have identical 87Sr/86Sr ratios to samples EA16 and EA15 in the
Madden et al. (2018) study: discussed in the text
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Антропологія
trauma in evidence at Verteba can be wholly as
signed to a single stage of the Trypillia culture, as
the available dating contradicts this, and equally,
the lack of absolute dating of comingled / mixed
deposits precludes such an assertion. It is appar
ent that the failure by Karsten and co-workers
to date every sample (prior to the Ledogar et al.
2019 paper) suggests that there was a working
assumption that the remains were Trypillian in
age and as such, contemporary, but this is dis
proven. Additionally, there is a knock-on effect
to all previous studies by these authors in that
the grouping of the material from Verteba, and
the implied contemporaneity, is at best an error
of judgement, and at worst misleading. Similarly,
suggesting that the available evidence attests
to a CII age for the trauma in evidence is also
somewhat economical with the facts, in that the
dating by Nikitin (2011; Nikitin et al. 2010, and
subsequently Lillie et al. 2015; 2017) had already
shown / has shown that the material that equates
to Trypillia is also dated to stages BII and CI of
this culture (and possibly slightly earlier), thus
establishing the fact that inter-personal violence
occurs before the decline of Trypillia. This fact is
actually far more interesting in research terms,
as the available evidence indicates that low level
endemic violence may characterise this farming
culture across the main stages of its evolution, an
observation that was not possible prior to the dis
covery of Verteba Cave, as the skeletal record for
Trypillia is lacking in general, and very poor for
the earlier stages of this culture.
Further irregularities are highlighted between
the studies of Lillie et al. 2017 and Madden et
al. 2018 in the reporting of strontium isotopes
from Verteba. In their 2018 study Madden et al.
(2018, p. 899) present the data in table 2 showing
the strontium, oxygen and carbon isotope results
from three individuals at Verteba.
Previously Lillie et al. (2017, p. 316) produced
the results in table 3 for 8 human for 8 human
and 2 pig samples from Verteba Cave.
Whilst the δ13C and δ18O ratios differ for two of
the individuals analysed by Madden et al. (2018)
it is intriguing to note the identical 87Sr/86Sr ra
tios between individual EA15 in the Madden et
al. (2018) study and individual 2 in the Lillie et
al. (2017) study, and the identical ratio for indi
vidual EA16 when compared to individual 7 in
the Lillie et al. (2017) study (table 3: highlight
ed text). Whilst the δ13C and δ18O ratios are not
comparable between these two studies, it might
be worthwhile identifying whether the individu
als with identical strontium values are in fact the
same individuals, as given the finite nature of the
resource, it is clear that different research teams
need to work in synergy in order to reduce repli
cation of analyses and thus propagate a reduction
in the available resource. Of course, the fact that
two individuals have produced identical Sr ratios
is also somewhat unusual in itself.
5. Additional Observations. Ledogar et al.
(2019, p. 149) observe that at Verteba «Nitrogen
values for two of the humans, two dogs, and one
pig are at the same trophic level (9.0—10.5 ‰) as
the freshwater species, while the other humans,
pig, dog, and chicken (2.7—8.4 ‰) fall below the
trophic level of the freshwater species». The dat
ing, alongside the nitrogen diet isotope values
of 2.7 ‰ and 2.9 ‰ for human and dog remains
from Verteba suggest that the Г3 site represents
a mixed location with dates of the dog across three
periods between 778—543 cal BC and the human
placed across two periods between 656—780 cal
AD (Iron Age and Scythian; table 4).
Whilst at face value the 2.7 ‰ and 2.9 ‰ ni
trogen isotope values for the Iron Age dog and
Scythian human appear to be reliable results,
the fact that Ledogar et al. (2019) note that they
are inconsistent with the data from Murphy et al.
(2013), and in fact are inconsistent with all other
studies undertaken on the remains from Ukraine
to date, is potentially cause for concern.
It is clear that the application of a technique
such as ZooMS (Zooarchaeology by Mass Spec
trometry) should be considered to verify the iden
tification of these samples. The isotope values are
in fact well below all those of previous studies
and also generally well below those in Ledogar
et al. (2019). As such, stating that they suggest a
«strongly herbivorous diet» (2019, p. 154) needs
to be tested as these values do not reflect troph
ic enrichment (which would be expected) or the
nature of the data that has been generated up
to this point. In general, whilst the majority of
the data at Verteba is consistent with the ratios
that would be expected for humans consuming
terrestrial diets wherein C3 resources are being
consumed, and the data are consistent with the
levels identified by Budd and Lillie (2020) for the
Mesolithic through to Eneolithic periods further
east in the Dnieper Basin, that are associated
with terrestrial diets, the values of 2.7 ‰ and
2.9 ‰ need to be investigated further given their
anomalous nature in relation to the available
data from Ukraine as a whole.
One further observation is that Ledogar et al.
(2019, p. 153) state that «Populations in Meso-
lithic Ukraine have been considered hunter-fish-
er-gatherers who relied heavily on animal pro-
tein; however, the isotopic data from individual
CC167136 from Verteba Cave suggests that he or
she consumed much more plant protein. While
the data from this study is only the diet of one
individual, it does introduce the possibility that
diet was quite variable across the region at this
period». Lillie et al. (2009; 2010; Lillie 1998 and
a number of other papers by these authors) had
actually already stressed that Mesolithic diets did
not rely heavily on animal protein, and they had
also already noted the fact that variability in diet
was occurring, and in actuality the data continues
to highlight this (Budd, Lillie 2020). The reader is
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Lillie, M. C., Budd, C. E. Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy
directed towards Lillie et al. (2020), Lillie (2020)
and Budd and Lillie (2020) for a detailed critique
of the Ukrainian evidence.
6. Discussion. The identification of an em
phasis on aquatic resources from the Epipalaeo
lithic period onwards in the Dnieper region is
significant for Ukraine as it is generally assumed
that broad-based resource procurement strate
gies are more characteristic of later, post-glacial
or Mesolithic groups (Dolukhanov 2000, p. 78).
Importantly, as noted by Lillie (2003a), it also
suggests that the preoccupation with the exploi
tation of large game animals, that characterises
discussions of prehistoric subsistence strategies
in Ukraine (Balakin, Nuzhinyi 1995; O’Connell et
al. 2000), fails to account for the reality, especially
given the considerable evidence for the exploita
tion of aquatic resources; resources which clearly
formed an essential element of Epipalaeolithic
through to Eneolithic diets across the early to
mid-Holocene. It is also likely that fish-based pro
teins periodically increased in significance across
the Epipalaeolithic to Eneolithic periods for vari
ous socio-economic, environmental and even ritu
alised reasons. To reiterate however, it should be
remembered that the designation of «Neolithic»
for Ukraine does not necessarily equate to the
«traditional» observation of an associated shift
towards the exploitation of domesticated plants
and animals, and as such continuity in subsist
ence practices across the early to mid-Holocene is
not atypical for many regions of Eastern Europe.
The fact is that fish, and freshwater resources,
are an important dietary staple from the Epi
palaeolithic period onwards, and it would be fic
titious to suggest that the exploitation of these
resources represents the exploitation of a «star
vation food» that is only relied upon during pe
riods of resource stress. Amongst the fantasies
that are highlighted in dietary studies is the idea
that meat consumption is the «be all and end all»
of the subsistence spectrum during the earlier
Holocene. Furthermore, it appears that we see
diversification in subsistence strategies between
the Epipalaeolithic and later Mesolithic periods
as the data suggest that a broader dietary spec
trum was being exploited in the latter period as
plant and animal resources expand and diversify
(Budd, Lillie 2020). The isotope data also dem
onstrate that as early as ca. 7000—6600 cal BC
there is evidence to suggest that certain individu
als, in this case at the cemetery of Marievka, were
consuming diets that were predominantly based
on the consumption of terrestrial as opposed to
freshwater resources (ibid. 2020). Throughout
the Neolithic period the data again indicate that
a heavy reliance is placed upon the exploitation
of freshwater resources, especially at the sites
of Yasinovatka, Nikolskoye and Dereivka I. At
Yasinovatka, Vasilyevka V, and Dereivka I we
again have individuals who were consuming ter
restrial as opposed to aquatic dominated diets.
By the Eneolithic period diversification is occur
ring. The isotope analysis at Igren VIII indicates
a heavy reliance on freshwater resources, but at
Molukhov Bugor the data indicate that more var
ied diets were being consumed, albeit with fresh
water resources still forming an integral element
of subsistence strategies. The main point of de
parture, as might be anticipated, is the evidence
from Verteba Cave in western Ukraine, where
the diet isotope data supports the exploitation of
terrestrial dietary pathways for the (presumed)
Trypillia farmer groups who interred their dead
in secondary contexts at this location.
As has been emphasised elsewhere (Lillie et al.
2009), the heavy reliance on freshwater resources
across the Epipalaeolithic through to Eneolithic
periods in and around the Dnieper river system
in Ukraine is resulting in a radiocarbon fresh
water reservoir effect (FRE) that is impacting on
the dating of the individuals interred in the DR
M-t cemeteries of Ukraine. The discussion above
has highlighted the fact that there is no simple
correction factor that can be applied at the whole
cemetery level due to the variations in δ15N val
ues that are in evidence. However, the fact that
there are individuals at a number of cemeteries
who consumed diets that were dominated by ter
restrial resources, and who exhibit values for δ15N
across the range of ca. 9—11 ‰, does offer some
potential for future studies aimed at refining the
FRE correction factors at certain locations.
Finally, the discussion throughout this paper
has sought to highlight areas where research
agenda’s overlap, and where the research itself is
occasionally perhaps lacking somewhat in meth
odological and scientific rigour. In this context the
research undertaken at Verteba Cave has proven
fruitful in terms of a critique of methods and the
dissemination of results. Whilst this overview is
envisioned as an appraisal of the state of play up
to this point, it is not intended to be critical per
se, as there are many pitfalls in the development
of new and innovative research agenda’s. This is
especially so in regions such as Ukraine, where
the history of research makes it difficult to gain
a rapid overview of cultural developments, and
where the application of scientific methodologies
such as AMS dating and isotope analyses are still
relatively new in studies of past human groups.
The costs involved in the application of these
techniques can be prohibitive, and it is clear from
the studies at sites like Verteba Cave in west
ern Ukraine, that the work of different research
teams can intersect, and that this can on occa
sion lead to inconsistencies and overlaps in the
reporting of research findings. Undoubtedly con
certed research efforts aimed at ensuring synergy
in approach and securing funding for long-term
studies must form an integral aspect of future re
search in Ukraine.
Conclusions. At present the majority of the
cemeteries studied from the Dnieper Basin ex
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Антропологія
hibit either long periods of interment, or multiple
phases of use, or both, this is the case for many
DD/M-t cemeteries, and is also true for Verteba
Cave in western Ukraine. Verteba Cave itself is
unique in the myriad ritual activities that are
attested, and in offering insights into the Trypil
lia culture that would have been impossible to
disentangle without such a location. Of some
significance is the observation that low levels of
endemic inter-personal violence may well have
characterised this population across stages BII to
CII of its existence, and of course it is conceivable
that such activities may have characterised the
Trypillia culture in general.
The data has shown that in the Dnieper region
the exploitation of freshwater resources is occur
ring from the Epipalaeolithic through to Eneolithic
periods, and whilst there is some variability in evi
dence, prehistoric diets were not simply focussed
on the exploitation of large game animals. Fresh
water resources were stable resources in a chang
ing environment and it is likely that all of the re
sources of the riparian zone were being exploited
across the Epipalaeolithic through to Eneolithic
periods and beyond. Logically we now need to un
dertake full cemetery analyses for all of the periods
that have been studied to date, and to extend the
analyses into the later prehistoric periods to try to
elucidate the nature of the adoption of domesticat
ed resources by subsequent culture groups, whilst
also expanding the analyses further, beyond the
areas that are currently being studied.
It is apparent that concerted collaborative ef
forts are needed to ensure that the study of pre
historic populations are systematic, integrated
and targeted to ensure that realistic interpreta
tions and conclusions are being generated from
studies in the territory of Ukraine. It is also read
ily apparent that replication of data is wasteful in
terms of research time and resources, and given
that Madden et al. (2018, p. 901) state that Verte
ba is a «unique» and a «non-renewable resource»
the potential analysis of the same individuals
as identified above would reinforce the need for
dialogue and synergy in approaches to such data.
Similarly, the avoidance of misrepresentation
or misuse of data from previous studies, which
undermines the discipline and the peer review
process somewhat, and weakens the value of the
scientific research that has been undertaken over
the past three decades (particularly so in the case
of dating and isotope studies), is fundamental if
the research being produced is to remain valid,
authorised and significant.
Unfortunately, the fact is that despite our
studies since 1992—1993, there is still a lot of
analysis that needs to be undertaken if we are
to adequately characterise the socio-cultural and
economic development of the prehistoric popula
tions of Ukraine, not least because the majority
of our research has focussed on the populations
in and around the Dnieper river system due to
the exceptional preservation of human skeletal
remains in cemeteries from the earliest Holocene
through to ca. 3500 cal BC (and beyond) in this
region. Throughout our research program a lack
of resources has inhibited the degree to which
dating and dietary isotope studies have been able
to be applied. Ukraine has been shown to be ex
ceptional in terms of its prehistoric cultural de
velopments, the existence of cemeteries from as
early as ca. 10,200 cal BC and their use across
all periods of prehistory, the fact that the genetic
data indicates that the Yamnaya culture is piv
otal in terms of the origins of the Indo-Europe
ans, and that it is likely that earlier Sredni-Stog
culture groups may well be central to these de
velopments (e. g. Mathieson et al. 2018). Future
research agendas now need to expand upon the
foundations that have been established and un
dertake whole cemetery multi-disciplinary analy
ses in order to further enhance our understand
ing of socio-economic and societal developments
during the early to mid-Holocene in Ukraine.
Acknowledgements. We would particularly
like to thank Professor, Dr. Hab. Dmytro Telegin
(to whom this paper is dedicated) and Dr. Inna
Potekhina, as, without their help, guidance, col
laborative spirit, inspiration, and advice the early
research would have been far more difficult and
onerous. We would also like to thank Alexei Ni
kitin for discussions around the DNA analyses,
and for advice and opinions in relation to our
thoughts regarding Verteba cave. Also, Mykhailo
P. Sokohatskyi was kind enough to invite MCL to
visit Verteba in 2011, with Dr. Inna Potekhina,
and Prof. Aleksandr Potekhin drove us from Kiev
to Verteba, no easy undertaking given the road
conditions away from the major urban centers.
Professor Lillie would also like to make men
tion of two colleagues who are also no longer with
us, but who both in their own ways helped him
throughout the earlier years of his research —
firstly Professor Timofeev (St. Petersburg) who
helped with access to the collections housed in St.
Petersburg and with an extended visit during the
early part of the research agenda, and secondly
Professor Dolukhanov, who was always helpful
in offering advice and access to papers across a
significant part of the research. Pivotal, in terms
of Lillie’s academic development was, of course,
his PhD supervisor the late Professor Marek Zve
lebil, one of the more influential thinkers in ear
lier Prehistoric studies. They are all missed.
Funding. A NERC-AHRC National Radio
carbon Facility (NRCF) grant (to MCL) provided
funding for the AMS Dating presented in the
Lillie et al. 2015; 2017 papers (Project — No.
NF/2011/2/18). In addition, WAERC (Wetland
Archaeology & Environments Research Centre)
at the University of Hull (now based at Umeå
University in Sweden) funded a considerable
amount of the dating and isotope work that has
been undertaken since 1991—1992.
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Lillie, M. C., Budd, C. E. Diet Isotope Analysis and Related Studies in Prehistoric Ukraine: Fact, Fiction and Fantasy
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M. C. Lillie, C. E. Budd
DIET ISOTOPE ANALYSIS
AND RELATED STUDIES
IN PREHISTORIC UKRAINE:
FACT, FICTION AND FANTASY
The authors consider scientific studies of Ukrainian
skeletal material across the Epipalaeolithic to Eneo
lithic periods and offer some observations in relation
to the efficacy of studies undertaken by different re
searchers. Firstly, the authors summarize the results
of their own research since the original research under
taken by Lillie in the early 1990s, and present period
based overviews (fig. 1—3) which discuss the nature
of the evidence, the fact that fish remains important
across the periods studied. The data also highlights
the fact that by the Eneolithic period different culture
groups are following distinct subsistence strategies.
This is obviously marked by western dietary pathways
linked to the integration of agro-pastoralism (and asso
ciated to presumed Trypillia farming groups at Verte
ba Cave), and those of the eastern hunter-fisher-forag
ers in the Dnieper region at Igren VIII and Molukhov
Bugor.
Interestingly the chronological separation between
these two sites is also linked to dietary variability.
At the earlier site of Igren VIII there is diet isotope
evidence for a relatively heavy reliance on freshwa
ter resources as ca. 4300—4000 cal BC, whilst at the
latter site of Molukhov Bugor, at 3950—3700 cal BC,
a reduction in the reliance on freshwater resources
is in evidence. This is accompanied by evidence for a
broader spectrum approach to the exploitation of the
wild resources in and around the Dnieper Rapids re
gion. Radiocarbon dating is shown to be affected by the
FRE at the sites in and around the Dnieper system.
This is clearly not the case at Verteba Cave because
the freshwater reservoir effect is not associated with
dietary pathways that place a reliance on terrestrial
resources.
The authors discuss the dating (fig. 4—6) and mobil
ity and dietary isotope studies that they undertook at
this location and contextualize these by comparison to
the work of other researchers. It is suggested that some
issues occur in relation to the different research groups
activities at Verteba Cave, and the fact that there is a
clear need for a more considered approach to the data
presented by these other groups is highlighted. It could
be argued that a lack of detailed knowledge and col
laboration occurs despite the fact that there are clear
overlaps between research agendas. The authors con
clude with a call for targeted multi-disciplinary analy
ses aimed at whole cemetery studies in order to further
enhance our understanding of socio-economic and so
cietal developments during the early to mid-Holocene
in Ukraine.
Keywords: Ukraine, prehistory, dietary isotope
analysis, δ13C, δ15N, AMS dating, freshwater reservoir
effects.
М. К. Ліллі, Ч. Е. Бад
іЗотопниЙ діЄтниЙ АнАліЗ тА
поВ’ЯЗАні З ниМ дослідженнЯ
перВісної історії УкрАїні: ФАк-
ти, ВигАдки тА ФАнтАстикА
Автори розглядають результати вивчення скелет
ного матеріалу періоду від епіпалеоліту та енеоліту та
наводять деякі спостереження щодо ефективності до
сліджень, проведених різними вченими. Перш за все,
автори узагальнюють результати досліджень, які про
водились М. Ліллі з колегами з початку 1990-х рр., та
проводять огляд нових результатів (рис. 1—3), які під
тверджують той факт, що риба залишалася важливим
продуктом харчування протягом названих періодів.
Отримані дані також підкреслюють той факт, що в
епоху енеоліту різні культурні групи дотримувалися
різних харчових стратегій. Це, очевидно, визначаєть
ся західними впливами та інтеграцією землеробства
і скотарства (трипільська фермерська група з печери
вертеба), та традиціями мисливців-рибалок-збирачів
з Ігрені VIII та Молюхового бугра у Подніпров’ї.
Цікаво, що хронологічна відмінність між цими дво
ма пам’ятками супроводжується і харчовою мінливіс
тю. На старшій пам’ятці Ігрень VIII отримані ізотопні
дані про відносно високу залежність від прісноводних
ресурсів у період 4300—4000 cal BC, тоді як на піз
нішій пам’ятці Молюхів бугор, дані свідчать про змен
шення залежності від прісноводних ресурсів протягом
3950—3700 cal BC. Ці результати супроводжуються
доказами використання більш широкого спектру
природних ресурсів у регіоні Дніпровських порогів та
навколо нього. Показано також, що на радіовуглецеві
дати на пам’ятках у басейні Дніпра впливає прісно
водний резервуарний ефект. Цього не спостерігається
на матеріалах з печери вертеба, оскільки ефект пріс
новодного резервуару не пов’язаний з дієтичними лан
цюгами, які залежать від наземних ресурсів.
Отримані авторами результати датування (рис. 4—
6), дослідження мобільності та дієтних ізотопів обго
ворюються у контексті результатів інших дослідників.
висловлюється припущення, що діяльність різних
дослідницьких груп у печері вертеба породжує низку
проблем, що викликає необхідність продуманішого під
ходу до даних, представлених іншими групами. Можна
стверджувати, що незважаючи на спільну тематику і
близькі програми, окремим дослідницьким групам бра
кує детальних знань та співпраці. Стаття завершується
закликом до цілеспрямованого мультидисциплінарно
го аналізу при дослідженні всіх могильників з метою
подальшого вдосконалення нашого розуміння соціаль
но-економічних та суспільних подій протягом раннього
та середнього голоцену на території України.
ключові слова: Україна, передісторія, аналіз
дієтних ізотопів, δ13C, δ15N, датування AMS, прісно
водний резервуарний ефект.
Одержано 10.07.2020
БАд Челсі, Доктор філософії, Постдокторант уні
верситету м. Умеа, SE 901-87, Швеція.
bUDD Chelsea, PhD, Postodcotral Research Fellow,
Umeå University, SE 901-87, Sweden.
ORCID: 0000-0001-8527-9669, e-mail: Chelsea.budd@umu.se.
ліллі Малкольм, Доктор філософії, Професор уні
верситету м. Умеа, SE 901-87, Швеція.
LILLIE Malcolm, PhD, Professor, Umeå University,
SE 901-87, Sweden.
ORCID: 0000-0002-6054-3651, e-mail: malcolm.lillie@
umu.se.
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