World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine
The basic isotopes of nuclear medicine presently are ⁹⁹Mо and ¹⁸F. For the production of these isotopes, there was a need to create accelerators to satisfy the needs for isotopes for large countries. For these purposes, electron accelerators are developed using warm and superconducting accelerating...
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| Zitieren: | World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine / I.S. Guk // Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. — 2022. — № 3. — С. 128-133. — Бібліогр.: 55 назв. — англ. |
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| citation_txt | World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine / I.S. Guk // Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. — 2022. — № 3. — С. 128-133. — Бібліогр.: 55 назв. — англ. |
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| description | The basic isotopes of nuclear medicine presently are ⁹⁹Mо and ¹⁸F. For the production of these isotopes, there was a need to create accelerators to satisfy the needs for isotopes for large countries. For these purposes, electron accelerators are developed using warm and superconducting accelerating structures. It is also assumed to use neutron generators and cyclotrons.
Основними ізотопами ядерної медицини в даний час є ⁹⁹Mо і ¹⁸F. Для виробництва цих ізотопів виникла необхідність створення прискорювачів, що дозволяють задовольнити потреби в ізотопах для великих країн. Для цих цілей розроблені електронні прискорювачі, що використовують теплі і надпровідні прискорюючі структури. Також передбачається використовувати нейтронні генератори і циклотрони.
Основными изотопами ядерной медицины в настоящее время являются ⁹⁹Mо и ¹⁸F. Для производства этих изотопов возникла необходимость создания ускорителей, позволяющих удовлетворить потребности в изотопах для больших стран. Для этих целей разработаны электронные ускорители, использующие теплые и сверхпроводящие ускоряющие структуры. Также предполагается использовать нейтронные генераторы и циклотроны.
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128 ISSN 1562-6016. ВАНТ. 2022. №3(139)
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR METHODS
https://doi.org/10.46813/2022-139-128
WORLD TRENDS IN THE APPLICATION OF ACCELERATORS FOR
THE PRODUCTION OF BASIC ISOTOPES FOR NUCLEAR MEDICINE
I.S. Guk
National Science Center “Kharkov Institute of Physics and Technology”, Kharkiv, Ukraine
E-mail: guk@kipt.kharkov.ua
The basic isotopes of nuclear medicine presently are 99Mо and 18F. For the production of these isotopes, there
was a need to create accelerators to satisfy the needs for isotopes for large countries. For these purposes, electron
accelerators are developed using warm and superconducting accelerating structures. It is also assumed to use neu-
tron generators and cyclotrons.
PACS: 07.85.-m, 81.40wx, 87.53-j
INTRODUCTION
The development of new directions in the physics
and technology of accelerators is associated with the
creation of unique installations designed to receive an-
swers to studies of the fundamental properties of matter
and the evolution of the Universe. Modern new acceler-
ator technologies arise in connection with the practical
problems of fight against cancer and cardiovascular
illnesses of man. Nuclear medicine has played a leading
role in resolving these issues over the past twenty years.
Nuclear medicine is industry of medicine, using radio-
nuclidess for diagnostics and treatment of illnesses. The
use of radioactive isotopes for the diagnosis and treat-
ment of cancer and other diseases is widely used in
modern medical practice [1-7].
Vast studies of properties of radio-nuclidess are
presently undertaken, the most effective application of
every investigational isotope domains are certain for the
use, both in diagnostics of diseases and at affecting dif-
ferent new formations in the organism of man [8-10]. In
most developed countries (USA, Europe, Japan), the use
of radio-nuclidess carries mass character. An equipment
and medical preparations are worked out and certifi-
cated, procedures of application of radioactive prepara-
tions are standartized for diagnostics and treatment of
certain types of diseases [11]. Preparation of specialists
is conducted for this industry of medicine. The stable
production of all necessary nomenclature of isotopes is
created, both within the limits of separate regional cen-
ters of nuclear medicine and in the scales of whole
countries. The market of medical radioisotopes in 2016
made an about 7.7 milliard of dollars of the USA, and a
to 13.6 milliard can increase to 2021 [7, 12]. Leading
firms can provide delivery of necessary radiopharma-
ceuticals practically in any point of the world [13, 14].
The stability of the production and supply of iso-
topes is one of the main requirements for nuclear medi-
cine, since people are constantly sick, and most isotopes
cannot be manufactured for future use. This is due to the
peculiarities of the physics of production of some of the
most commonly used isotopes.
It should be noted that about 10% of procedures with
radioactive isotopes (mainly for cancers) are used for
treatment, 90% of procedures are used to diagnose vari-
ous diseases [7].
At the use of isotopes most attention is spared to the
methods of early diagnostics of diseases. In this case
probability of positive effect from further treatment of
disease is most.
Single-photon emission computed tomography
(SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) are
two most widespread methods of diagnostics in nuclear
medicine, based on the use of isotopes that emit gamma
quanta and positrons [15, 16].
We will consider the methods of production of the
main isotopes used by these techniques and the pro-
spects for using electron accelerators for these purposes.
The international database of isotopes that can be
used in nuclear medicine contains more than 76 isotopes
[8, 9]. However the use only a few from them caused
the necessity of search and development of the new ac-
celerating systems for their production.
The most widespread radioisotope used in diagnos-
tics is technetium-99 (99mТс), with approximately
40 million procedures in a year, on that is near 80%
procedures of nuclear medicine and 85% diagnostic
scan-outs in nuclear medicine in the whole world [7].
By other isotope, on the production of that the modern
PET tomography is based, there is 18F.
1. ISOTOPES PRODUCTION FOR SPECT
TOMOGRAPHY
SPECT is based on the use of isotopes that emit
gamma quanta. With the help of pharmaceuticals, the
isotope is introduced into the body and accumulates in
certain organs. The emitted gamma quanta are recorded
using an ionization chamber. Based on the data ob-
tained, a two-dimensional or three-dimensional distribu-
tion of the isotope is constructed, which makes it possi-
ble to obtain information about negative changes in the
organ. SPECT is currently the most widespread scan-
ning technology for diagnostics and monitoring of a
wide range of diseases [7, 15].
The widespread use of the 99mTc isotope in diagnos-
tics is due to a number of properties that meet the re-
quirements of the technique [15].
The 99mTc radionuclide has a half-life of 6.01 h.
When 99mTc decays, it emits gamma quanta with energy
of 0.1405 MeV. These photons are efficiently detected
by the ionization chamber and have low absorption in
the human body. Sodium pertechnetat 99mTc can be easi-
ISSN 1562-6016. ВАНТ. 2022. №3(139) 129
ly combined for the preparation of various radiophar-
maceuticals. An additional advantage is the fact that the
isotope can be obtained from the parent 99Mo isotope by
decay with a lifetime of 66.02 h. A compact 99mТс gen-
erator from this isotope has been developed, which can
be delivered practically anywhere on earth in a very
short time [5-8, 10, 15].
Isotopes 201Tl, 123I, 111In are also used for SPECT
tomography, but their application is limited [5, 8, 15].
From 95 to 98% of all 99Mo in the world is obtained
from the weapons-grade fission 235U [1, 7, 15, 17-19]
(75% [7]). Reactors are used with thermal neutron fluxes
at the level of 1014…1015 neutrons/(cm2 s) due to the fis-
sion of the 235U nucleus in the reaction − 235U (n, F) 99Mo.
The cross-section for fission of uranium-235 by thermal
neutrons is 582.6 barn. The share of 99Mo in decomposi-
tion products is 6.1% [17, 18].
This process for obtaining 99Mo is currently consid-
ered the cheapest. The use of targets with low uranium
enrichment leads to an increase in the price of the prod-
uct yield by 20 percent [7].
For the production of 99Mo in reactors, the neutron
capture reaction 98Mo (n, γ) 99Mo can be used. Howev-
er, the cross section for this reaction is 0.136 barn for
thermal neutrons is two orders of magnitude lower than
the cross section for production from 235U [5, 15-17].
The production of 99Mo by this method turned out to be
less effective for obtaining large amounts of the isotope
[18-21].
The widespread use of the 99Mo isotope causes con-
stant and close attention to the methods and problems of
its production [7, 10, 12, 22]. In connection with the
closure of reactors, all greater attention is spared to
methods for producing an isotope using accelerators
protons, deuterons and electrons [7, 17, 18, 23, 24].
With the help of cyclotrons, using the reaction 100Mo
(p, 2n) 99mTc, it is possible to obtain sufficient amounts
of the isotope, but for this it is necessary to completely
change the entire system for obtaining 99mTc, based on
the use of 99Mo [24, 25].
With the help of electron accelerators, the recon-
struction of the existing methods of obtaining 99Mo can
be carried out with much lower costs. Quite a lot of
works have been devoted to the development of isotope
production technology [6, 10, 17-19, 26-35]. The pro-
duction of an isotope using electron accelerators is pos-
sible only using the reactions 238U (γ, F) 99Mo and
100Mo (γ, n) 99Mo. These reactions make it possible to
obtain the required amount of the isotope to meet the
needs of entire countries with the modern development
of electron accelerator technologies [17-19].
The United States consumes about half of the
world's 99Mo. However, most of this isotope is produced
in other countries, which poses a number of supply sta-
bility issues. Therefore, several projects for the produc-
tion of the isotope are financed in the USA, based on
existing and new developments of electron and deuteron
accelerators [32]. They must completely solve the prob-
lem of producing the required amount of the isotope
without using weapons-grade uranium.
The NorthStar Medical Radioisotopes company,
based on its developments, has created a 99mTc techneti-
um generator from 99Mo, produced without the use of
uranium [33, 34].
A generator corresponds to all standards of Pharma-
copoeia for 99Mо that allows using him together with
existent generators.
The 99Mo isotope will be produced at a specially de-
signed electron accelerator. The target will be 100Mo
with 95 percent enrichment. Obtaining an isotope in this
way is 30% more efficient than obtaining it by irradia-
tion of enriched 98Mo in a reactor [33].
In early 2019, NorthStar announced the signing of a
contract for the purchase of eight Rhodotron®
TT300 HE electron beam accelerators manufactured by
IBA [35]. The Rhodotron® TT300 HE accelerator has
been specially designed to meet this challenge (Fig. 1).
NorthStar has placed purchase orders for the first pair of
accelerators and completed building of new productive
complex by an area 30 000 apt. feet in September, 2019.
It is expected that the first pair of accelerating will ar-
rive in USA during the fourth quarter of 2020.
Fig. 1. Accelerator Rhodotron® TT300 HE [35]
Beam parameters − 125 kW, 40 MeV, 3.1 mA,
107.5 MHz, energy spread ~ 5%. The accelerator pro-
vides continuous 24/7 operation.
Company "Niowave" (state Michigan) [36-38] has
demonstrated the production of molybdenum-99 at its
Lansing R&D facility and hopes to produce up to
25 percent of the molybdenum-99 used in the United
States within the next six years. The company produces
medical isotopes without nuclear reactors or highly en-
riched uranium, instead using superconducting linear
accelerators to separate natural uranium. Now "Nio-
wave" produces a superconducting electronic Linac of
40 MeV and a power of 100 kW for the production of
medical radioisotopes [37] (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Commercial Superconducting Electron Linac [36]
A company "SHINE Medical Isotopes" began on
May, 9, 2019 building of complex on the production of
medical isotopes in Janesville (Wisconsin, USA) [39].
The company may start commercial production of 99Mo
130 ISSN 1562-6016. ВАНТ. 2022. №3(139)
in 2021, after the construction of the plant is completed.
The proposed method is the production of isotopes by
fission in a target with LEU dissolved in an aqueous
solution [40, 41].
In 2015 of SHINE and GE Healthcare declared, that
successfully got the pharmaceutical class of 99mTc from
Drytec™ (producer of generators Technetium 99mTc) of
company GE Healthcare for the production of sodium
pertechnetate for the injections of 99mTc, using 99Mo,
producible the innovative process of SHINE. The posi-
tive results of this dough confirm that 99Mo, produced
by means of process of SHINE, can be plugged in exist-
ing chain of supplying with 99Mo.
The source of neutrons in this production is a deu-
teron accelerator and a tritium target. In cooperation
with Phoenix, SHINE managed to achieve the highest
neutron flux in such an accelerator-target system −
4.6×1013 neutrons per second. The results obtained indi-
cate that this scheme can become a powerful competitor
to the use of superconducting electron accelerators.
The sectional diagram of the installation is shown in
Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Isotope production scheme
Fig. 4. The deuteron accelerator
The appearance of the deuteron accelerator is shown
in Fig. 4.
In the complex with a total area of about 4 thousand
square meters, eight accelerating systems for the pro-
duction of isotopes will be installed. For molybdenum-
99, their productivity will be about a third of the world's
demand for this isotope.
2. ISOTOPES PRODUCTION
FOR PET DIAGNOSTICS
As indicated above, in the cost measurement of us-
ing 99Mo, in nuclear medicine, a significant place is
occupied by the use of positron emitters, which are used
in PET diagnostics [7-9].
Comprehensive data on the cross sections of reac-
tions, with the help of which they can be obtained, are
contained in the international database [8]. Of a fairly
large range of isotopes that emit positrons as a result of
nuclear transformations, four are currently used:
15O (half-life 2.04 min), 13N (9.96 min), 11C (20.4 min),
18F (110 min). The most commonly used pharmaceutical
in clinical PET scanning is fluorodeoxyglucose, a glucose
analogue labeled with the 18F isotope. Fluorodeoxyglu-
cose is used in almost all scans for oncology and in most
cases in neurology, which accounts for more than 95% of
all PET scans [16].
For many years, the possibility of obtaining the
above diagnostic isotopes for PET diagnostics using
electron accelerators has been studied [17, 30, 42-53].
Some advantages of using electron accelerators for the
production of PET isotopes have been demonstrated.
But the analysis of the modern world production of
these isotopes showed that only a few reactions involv-
ing protons and deuterons are actually used for produc-
tion [7, 16].
This is due to the fact that at the beginning of the
development of PET centers, which include an accelera-
tor, the cheapest was the cyclotron. Last models of PET
centers are used fully automated accelerators equipped
with superconducting magnets that operate at nitrogen
temperatures. This is, for example, the iMіTRACE cy-
clotron [54, 55] (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5. iMiTRACE Cyclotron
ISSN 1562-6016. ВАНТ. 2022. №3(139) 131
iMiTRACE Cyclotron accelerates protons to
12 MeV with a current of up to 50 μA and requires
65 kW of power to operate. With the help of this cyclo-
tron, it is possible to obtain isotopes 18F, 11C with
productivity for 18F more 60 GBq after 2 h 30 min of
bombardment.
Since the cost of the accelerator is an essential part
of the equipment of the PET center and their renewal
can be expected only with the payback of previous in-
vestments, one should not expect the use of electron
technological accelerators in the next decade, provided
their cost competition in comparison with other types of
accelerators.
Thus, despite some advantages, electron accelera-
tors, including superconducting ones, will not be used in
PET centers in the near future.
CONCLUSIONS
The production of other isotopes that can be used in
modern nuclear medicine [6, 36, 50], taking into ac-
count a small part of their production in terms of cost to
the isotopes discussed above, does not currently require
the use of specially designed accelerating systems.
Therefore, it makes no sense to discuss the advantages
of using one or another accelerator for their production.
As the world practice shows, the most profitable for
their production is the use of any operating options.
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ISSN 1562-6016. ВАНТ. 2022. №3(139) 133
СВІТОВІ ТЕНДЕНЦІЇ У ВИКОРИСТАННІ ПРИСКОРЮВАЧІВ ДЛЯ ВИРОБНИЦТВА ОСНОВНИХ
ІЗОТОПІВ ДЛЯ ЯДЕРНОЇ МЕДИЦИНИ
І.С. Гук
Основними ізотопами ядерної медицини сьогодні є 99Mo і 18F. Для виробництва цих ізотопів виникла не-
обхідність створення прискорювачів, що дозволяють задовольнити потреби в ізотопах для великих країн. З
цією метою розроблені електронні прискорювачі, що використовують теплі і надпровідні прискорюючі
структури. Також передбачається використовувати нейтронні генератори і циклотрони.
МИРОВЫЕ ТЕНДЕНЦИИ В ПРИМЕНЕНИИ УСКОРИТЕЛЕЙ ДЛЯ ПРОИЗВОДСТВА ОСНОВНЫХ
ИЗОТОПОВ ДЛЯ ЯДЕРНОЙ МЕДИЦИНЫ
И.С. Гук
Основными изотопами ядерной медицины в настоящее время являются 99Mo и 18F. Для производства
этих изотопов возникла необходимость создания ускорителей, позволяющих удовлетворить потребности в
изотопах для больших стран. Для этих целей разработаны электронные ускорители, использующие теплые и
сверхпроводящие ускоряющие структуры. Также предполагается использовать нейтронные генераторы и
циклотроны.
|
| id | nasplib_isofts_kiev_ua-123456789-195381 |
| institution | Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| issn | 1562-6016 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2025-11-24T05:08:49Z |
| publishDate | 2022 |
| publisher | Національний науковий центр «Харківський фізико-технічний інститут» НАН України |
| record_format | dspace |
| spelling | Guk, I.S. 2023-12-04T15:16:19Z 2023-12-04T15:16:19Z 2022 World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine / I.S. Guk // Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. — 2022. — № 3. — С. 128-133. — Бібліогр.: 55 назв. — англ. 1562-6016 PACS: 07.85.-m, 81.40wx, 87.53-j https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/195381 The basic isotopes of nuclear medicine presently are ⁹⁹Mо and ¹⁸F. For the production of these isotopes, there was a need to create accelerators to satisfy the needs for isotopes for large countries. For these purposes, electron accelerators are developed using warm and superconducting accelerating structures. It is also assumed to use neutron generators and cyclotrons. Основними ізотопами ядерної медицини в даний час є ⁹⁹Mо і ¹⁸F. Для виробництва цих ізотопів виникла необхідність створення прискорювачів, що дозволяють задовольнити потреби в ізотопах для великих країн. Для цих цілей розроблені електронні прискорювачі, що використовують теплі і надпровідні прискорюючі структури. Також передбачається використовувати нейтронні генератори і циклотрони. Основными изотопами ядерной медицины в настоящее время являются ⁹⁹Mо и ¹⁸F. Для производства этих изотопов возникла необходимость создания ускорителей, позволяющих удовлетворить потребности в изотопах для больших стран. Для этих целей разработаны электронные ускорители, использующие теплые и сверхпроводящие ускоряющие структуры. Также предполагается использовать нейтронные генераторы и циклотроны. en Національний науковий центр «Харківський фізико-технічний інститут» НАН України Вопросы атомной науки и техники Application of nuclear methods World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine Світові тенденції у використанні прискорювачів для виробництва основних ізотопів для ядерної медицини Мировые тенденции в применении ускорителей для производства основных изотопов для ядерной медицины Article published earlier |
| spellingShingle | World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine Guk, I.S. Application of nuclear methods |
| title | World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine |
| title_alt | Світові тенденції у використанні прискорювачів для виробництва основних ізотопів для ядерної медицини Мировые тенденции в применении ускорителей для производства основных изотопов для ядерной медицины |
| title_full | World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine |
| title_fullStr | World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine |
| title_full_unstemmed | World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine |
| title_short | World trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine |
| title_sort | world trends in the application of accelerators for the production of basic isotopes for nuclear medicine |
| topic | Application of nuclear methods |
| topic_facet | Application of nuclear methods |
| url | https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/195381 |
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