Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials
Data on the uranium deposits database for the identification of radioactive material and sources of natural radiation within the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield are provided. The territories of uranium ore mining and processing are considered from the point of technologically enhanced naturally occurri...
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Національний науковий центр «Харківський фізико-технічний інститут» НАН України
2023
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Dudar, T.V. 2023-12-10T17:15:36Z 2023-12-10T17:15:36Z 2023 Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials / T.V. Dudar // Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. — 2023. — № 3. — С. 127-132. — Бібліогр.: 30 назв. — англ. 1562-6016 DOI: https://doi.org/10.46813/2023-145-127 https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/196154 621.039.7 +351/354 Data on the uranium deposits database for the identification of radioactive material and sources of natural radiation within the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield are provided. The territories of uranium ore mining and processing are considered from the point of technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials view according to the proposed classification of uranium legacy sites. Measures to refer the uranium mining and processing sites to the “legacy” category of Ukraine are presented. Наведено дані щодо бази даних уранових родовищ для ідентифікації радіоактивного матеріалу та джерел природної радіації в межах Українського кристалічного щита. Території видобування і перероблення уранової сировини розглядаються, з точки зору техногенно-підсилених джерел радіоактивності природного походження, за запропонованою класифікацією потенційних об’єктів уранової спадщини. Представлено заходи щодо визначення об’єктів уранової спадщини України. This work was done in the framework of cooperation between the Scientific Center for Aerospace Research of the Earth (CASRE) of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and the National Aviation University based on the Agreement on Scientific and Technical Cooperation № 48-нт-22 as of 26. Oct. 2022 en Національний науковий центр «Харківський фізико-технічний інститут» НАН України Problems of Atomic Science and Technology The physical and ecological problems of nuclear physics facilities exploiting and modernization Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials Території видобування і перероблення уранової руди як техногенно-підсилені джерела радіаціії природного походження Article published earlier |
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Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
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DSpace DC |
| title |
Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials |
| spellingShingle |
Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials Dudar, T.V. The physical and ecological problems of nuclear physics facilities exploiting and modernization |
| title_short |
Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials |
| title_full |
Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials |
| title_fullStr |
Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials |
| title_full_unstemmed |
Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials |
| title_sort |
uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials |
| author |
Dudar, T.V. |
| author_facet |
Dudar, T.V. |
| topic |
The physical and ecological problems of nuclear physics facilities exploiting and modernization |
| topic_facet |
The physical and ecological problems of nuclear physics facilities exploiting and modernization |
| publishDate |
2023 |
| language |
English |
| container_title |
Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |
| publisher |
Національний науковий центр «Харківський фізико-технічний інститут» НАН України |
| format |
Article |
| title_alt |
Території видобування і перероблення уранової руди як техногенно-підсилені джерела радіаціії природного походження |
| description |
Data on the uranium deposits database for the identification of radioactive material and sources of natural radiation within the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield are provided. The territories of uranium ore mining and processing are considered from the point of technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials view according to the proposed classification of uranium legacy sites. Measures to refer the uranium mining and processing sites to the “legacy” category of Ukraine are presented.
Наведено дані щодо бази даних уранових родовищ для ідентифікації радіоактивного матеріалу та джерел природної радіації в межах Українського кристалічного щита. Території видобування і перероблення уранової сировини розглядаються, з точки зору техногенно-підсилених джерел радіоактивності природного походження, за запропонованою класифікацією потенційних об’єктів уранової спадщини. Представлено заходи щодо визначення об’єктів уранової спадщини України.
|
| issn |
1562-6016 |
| url |
https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/196154 |
| citation_txt |
Uranium mining and milling sites as sources of technologically-enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials / T.V. Dudar // Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. — 2023. — № 3. — С. 127-132. — Бібліогр.: 30 назв. — англ. |
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2025-11-27T00:54:43Z |
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| fulltext |
ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2023. №3(145) 127
https://doi.org/10.46813/2023-145-127
UDC 621.039.7 +351/354
URANIUM MINING AND MILLING SITES AS SOURCES
OF TECHNOLOGICALLY-ENHANCED NATURALLY OCCURRING
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
T.V. Dudar
National Aviation University, Kyiv, Ukraine
E-mail: dtv.nau@gmail.com
Data on the uranium deposits database for the identification of radioactive material and sources of natural
radiation within the Ukrainian Crystalline Shield are provided. The territories of uranium ore mining and processing
are considered from the point of technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials view according
to the proposed classification of uranium legacy sites. Measures to refer the uranium mining and processing sites to
the “legacy” category of Ukraine are presented.
INTRODUCTION
In terms of Radioactive Source Security Assessment
it is considered a relatively new approach that assesses
the national policies, commitments, and actions to
secure radioactive sources and prevent dirty bomb real
possibilities [1]. This approach makes considering the
concept of radiological terrorism as use or threat of use
for terrorist purposes of radioactive substances and
materials designed to be used as a damaging factor of
ionizing radiation.
Substances containing natural radioactivity are
known as naturally occurring radioactive material
(NORM). Last year the 25
th
international symposia on
NORM, their origin, distribution in the world, impact on
the environment and humans was held (since 1997) [2].
These symposia bring together experts from around the
world, who especially emphasize the aspects of human
intervention (first of all, mining operations), which lead
to the concentration of radioactive substances in
technologically-enhanced naturally-occurring
radioactive material (TENORM). Because of this,
additional to the natural radiation background exposure
occurs [3, 4].
Uranium mining and processing sites, where
radioactive raw material have been extracted and
processed by different ways without corresponding
mandatory safety measures, are then transferred to the
category of uranium legacy sites, which are left as a
legacy to the next generations. Currently, such areas fall
under the scope of European Safety Standards (BSS –
EU Directive 59/2013) as radiation-hazardous sites that
require certain measures regarding possible ways of
their environmental remediation and are therefore
controlled at the level of EU environmental legislation
[5]. This applies to twelve European countries (not
including the eastern countries of the former USSR),
where such territories exist and are waiting for their
time, or have been fully or partially reclaimed: Bulgaria,
Estonia, Spain, Germany, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Slovenia, Hungary, France, of the Czech Republic and
Sweden [6–8].
To date, uranium is almost not mined in Europe,
except Ukraine. The legislation opportunities provide
different responses to uranium legacy sites management
in the listed above countries, depending, in particular,
on the environmental standards adopted in each country
[9–11]. However, public opposition made it possible to
examine and restore each site from the point of both
radiation and general environmental hazards to public
health and ecosystem restoration.
1. DATABASE OF URANIUM DEPOSITS
FOR IDENTIFICATION OF RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL
There are many places around the world where
radioactive materials that have gone through the nuclear
fuel cycle are produced, used and stored. Ukraine has
the largest amount of uranium ore resources in Europe
and has accumulated a lot of radioactive materials and
wastes from the uranium ore production and processing
(tails, technological structures, and radioactive landfills)
associated with the former USSR [12]. This inventory is
a real risk and there is a recognized need to be able to
identify the “radioactive material story” for the purpose
of nuclear forensics – its origin, composition, place of
extraction or production.
Illegal incident and trafficking of radioactive
materials around the world are recorded in a special
database – Incident and Trafficking Database (ITDB),
which was created by the IAEA after several serious
cases of smuggling in 1995 [13, 14]. Information that is
collected and analyzed is sent to IAEA member states
and relevant international organizations. Participation in
this program is voluntary. Currently, 134 states,
including Ukraine, provide their data to this information
base.
So, for a long time since 1995, more than 3,100
cases of unauthorized trafficking of nuclear and
radiation materials were recorded in the ITDB database
[14]. In addition, there are regular cases of theft of
radioactive materials used in medicine and industry,
which can be used to create a “dirty bomb”.
As it is well known, “dirty bombs” are a potential
weapon of terrorists. They are not used by regular
armies in the world. “Dirty bombs” are conventional
explosives combined with radioactive material that can
be used by terrorists under certain conditions to cause
panic among the population [1, 15]. The uranium
mining and milling sites along with waste dumps and
https://teacode.com/online/udc/62/621.039.7.html
mailto:dtv.nau@gmail.com
128 ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2023. №3(145)
available radioactive equipment can also be considered
as a source of potential radiation risk if to consider a
“dirty bomb case” [12].
Mineral composition, localization and distribution of
ore mineralization, chemical composition of ores can be
used as identification signs for nuclear forensics tasks.
Uranium ores from the three deposits – Central,
Michurinske, and Vatutinske – were examined for their
identification signs. Among these three deposits, the
ores of the Vatutinske deposit are characterized by a
sharply increased content of Ra, Th, Pb, Po, and U,
while the Central deposit is turned out to have the
lowest content of those elements. These significant
differences in the ores’ chemical composition can serve
as one of the important identification (characteristic)
signs [16, 17].
According to the sampled data, an average content
of uranium in the Vatutinsk deposit is 0.13%. The
presence of neodymium in the ores can be considered as
one of the signs of the Vatutinske deposit uranium ores.
Especially neodymium (Nd) accumulates in nenadkevite
(0.12…0.8%) and branerite (0.58%). The average
content of uranium in the Michurinsky deposit ores is
0.08%, and the content of thorium there is 0.0056%.
That is, uranium ores are almost thorium-free.
Zirconium can be considered one of the main
typomorphic elements of uranium ores. The highest
content in ores is noted for cerium (107.9∙10
-4
%) and
neodymium (59.1∙10
-4
%). However, due to the higher
content in uranium minerals – branerite (0.69% cerium,
0.47% neodymium) and uranium ferropseudobrookite
(0.41 and 0.21%, respectively), these elements can be
identifying signs in uranium ores processing products.
The average content of uranium in the Central deposit is
0.1%. Thorium content is negligible (0.002%). Uranium
titanosilicate (8…15% SiO2) was also found. The ores
are characterized by titanium oxide (TiO2) (twice as
much as in the Michurinske deposit) and zirconium
oxide ZrO2 (almost twice as much). The content of
neodymium in the ore exceeds its content in the ore of
the Michurinske deposit [17, 18].
Such studies are very important from the point of
environmental and radiation safety for uranium mining
and milling sites as well as for uranium legacy sites.
Identified impurities are expected in production waste,
which are considered as man-made and technologically
enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials, and
may affect the components of the environment.
2. URANIUM LEGACY SITES IN UKRAINE
Ukraine has accumulated a great deal of research
and practical experience and a significant amount of
archival material on geology of uranium and related
elements in the deposits of the Ukrainian Crystalline
Shield (UCS) and its slopes [19–21].
The Ukrainian Shield occupies the axial (northern,
central, and southwestern) part of the territory of
Ukraine, stretching from northwest to southeast for
almost 1,000 km. According to the latest data, a total of
357 radioactive sites (uranium and thorium) have been
counted within the territory of the UCS to date,
including 39 ore deposits, 298 ore occurrences, 20 ore
manifestations of mineralization [22]. Our research is
concentrated in the central part of the UCS, where the
largest number of natural uranium deposits among the
listed ones was discovered and studied.
However, due attention was not and is not being
paid to the issues of radiation and environmental
contamination of territories where there are sources and
potential risk from TENORM. Such territories often
contain waste from mining and primary processing of
ores, specific impurities of chemical, including
radioactive elements are found. They should be
considered as sources of TENORM, which can be
potentially used as radioactive material for making a
dirty bomb and have an impact not only on the
environment components, but also serve as a terrorist
threat.
Due to certain objective reasons (which are not
considered here), in numerous European publications
(IAEA, UMREG, etc.) regarding the territories affected
as a result of mining and processing of radioactive raw
materials, uranium legacy sites of Ukraine are met
extremely rarely [23]. This study draws attention to the
radiation and environmental safety for the potential
uranium legacy sites of Ukraine, where, since the
Second World War until now, uranium mining and
milling is in progress.
All uranium facilities in the country were operated
and still are under operation according to the standards
that do not meet the level of protection required by the
European standards. And these facilities also fall within
the scope of international safety standards as sites of
radioactive contamination. In the event that the
requirements for bringing the site to a safe state (by an
operator of active production) are not fulfilled, then all
sites must be transferred to a category of legacy –
“existing exposure”. Legacy sites require identification
according to certain criteria established by the
Regulatory Authority, which must determine
compliance with requirements and criteria for security
management at legacy sites and planning measures to
bring them to a safe state.
In Ukrainian legislation, there is no clear definition
of “legacy site”, as well as fixed procedures for bringing
the site to a safe state. Therefore, this study emphasizes
the necessity of science-based measures to determine
the territory of uranium legacy in Ukraine based on the
signs of potentially hazardous objects (post-uranium
legacy sites).
The classification of uranium legacy sites was
proposed in [23] based on types of activities and signs
of potentially hazardous objects having TENORM
(Table 1).
ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2023. №3(145) 129
Table 1
Uranium mining and milling facilities legacy sites of Ukraine
Legacy sites of depleted uranium deposits
Name of legacy site Location Notes
Pervomaiske deposit Central part of the UCS Depleted through underground mining
Zhovtorichenske deposit Central part of the UCS Depleted through underground mining
Devladivske deposit Southern Slope of the UCS Depleted through underground leaching
Bratske deposit Southern Slope of the UCS Depleted through underground leaching
Legacy sites of operating uranium mines
Ingulska mine Central part of the UCS Operates two deposits
Smolinska mine Central part of the UCS Operates Vatutinske deposit
Novokostyantynivska mine Central part of the UCS Operates Novokostyantynivske deposit
Legacy sites of milling facilities
Prydniprovskyi Chemical Plant Dnipropetrovska oblast Closed in 1990, waiting for remediation
Zhovti Vody “Skhid GZK” Dnipropetrovska oblast Operating facilities
The research area of approximately 260 km length
and of 125 km width is shown on Fig. 1,a,b. It includes
the main uranium ore mining and milling facilities
discovered and operated since 1945 when the
Pervomaiske deposit was first discovered. All identified
areas fall into the central part of the Ukrainian Shield.
a b
Fig. 1. Location of uranium legacy sites in the Central part of the Ukrainian Shield:
I – Ingulskyi megablock; II – Kremenchuk-Inguletska interblock suture zone; III – Prydniprovskyi megablock
To consider the concept of a uranium legacy site
(“radiation legacy sites” and/or “uranium legacy sites”)
two aspects have to be taken into account: the first –
anthropogenic activity either in the past or bearing
traces of long-term affect – “affected by past practices”,
where the level of radioactivity exceeds the background
(equivalent dose rate reaches 350 μSv/h); the second –
environmental components are characterized by a high
content of uranium (rocks – up to 40…53 g/t; soils ‒ up
to (0.5…1.9)∙10
-4
%; water – 5∙10
-6
…9∙10
-2
g/l), its
decay products, and associated elements. However, each
outlined location differs in terms of the potential risk
rate to the environment, including sources of TENORM
and approach to environmental monitoring and further
remediation techniques.
The area under consideration is potentially radon-
hazardous. For each territorial unit the question of its
zoning according to the level of radon hazard is an issue
of the near future. The priorities should be considered
within the boundaries of municipalities or integrated
territorial units. Determination of radon risk rate should
become the basis for educational and awareness-raising
work for the population about the radon potential of
their residential territories.
It should be noted that each location of potential
uranium legacy site in Ukraine is a unique one if to
consider its location in densely populated areas of
predominantly fertile black soil, where agricultural
activity is widely developed. Let's consider the territory
of the unique Pervomaiske deposit site.
The Pervomaiske deposit site (legacy site of worked-
out uranium deposit of iron-carbonate-uranium ores) is
shown in Fig. 2. The deposit itself was opened right
after the war in 1945 in the northern part of the city of
Kryvyi Rih. Further study confirmed the discovery of
the first large uranium deposit in the former USSR.
Uranium ores were mined in 1968, but the mine
continued to operate for rich iron ores.
130 ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2023. №3(145)
Fig. 2. Location of the Pervomaiske deposit in the outskirts of the Kryvyj Rih city
At the Pervomaiske deposit, uranium mineralization
was completely localized in commercial iron ores. It
was found out that the ores had a carbonate-hematite-
magnetite composition having interspersed uranium
minerals. Therefore, these iron ores are simultaneously
classified as uranium. Their composition is relatively
simple: iron ore minerals (30…75%), carbonates and
silicates (20…70%).
We conducted remote studies of the long-term
dynamics of the earth's surface temperature within the
area of research characterized by high radon rate (see
Fig. 1). Data of the long-wave infrared range
(8…14 μm) of the Landsat-8/OLI satellite, obtained for
the period of 2013–2019, were used to obtain images of
the land surface temperature (LST) distribution. The
method of determining the temperature of the earth's
surface is described in [24, 25]. In general, mining
territories ate noted to have high average annual
temperature and average annual growth of the LST,
which is mentioned in [26]. A clear correlation of the
depleted iron ore quarries and the uranium mining
wastes with the zones of high average annual
temperature and average annual growth of the LST at
the Pervomaiske deposit is shown in Fig. 3.
а b c
Fig. 3. Location of the worked out Pervomajske deposit (а); average land surface temperature (b);
annual average growth of the land surface temperature (c)
A detailed study of the mineralogy and petrography
of ores and host rocks is of great importance for the
development of technological schemes for the
enrichment of uranium ores, their hydrometallurgical
processing and subsequent impact on the environment
components and methods of the territory reclamation.
Unfortunately, geological information on uranium ores
deposits was not sufficiently summarized and published
due to the special regime of secrecy for radioactive raw
material resources and remained scattered in various
classified reports in the former USSR archives. So, the
specified uranium deposits sites have to be additionally
studied in terms of their radioecological situation in
order to classify them as uranium legacy sites.
Uranium tailings available within uranium legacy
sites in Ukraine are a waste byproduct (tailings) of
uranium mining. In mining, raw uranium ore is brought
to the surface and crushed into fine sand. The valuable
uranium-bearing minerals are then removed via heap-
leaching with the use of acids or bases, and the
remaining radioactive sludge, called “uranium tailings”,
is stored in huge impoundments. Uranium tailings
contain over a dozen radioactive nuclides, which are the
primary hazard posed by the tailings. The most
important of these are thorium-230, radium-226, radon-
222 (radon gas) and the daughter isotopes of radon
decay, including polonium-210 [27–29]. A lot of this
waste is alpha particle-emitting matter from the decay
chains of uranium and thorium.
Radioactivity is mainly associated with the uranium-
238 family. The level of radioactivity of waste is
different for different deposits and depends mainly on
ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2023. №3(145) 131
the initial content of uranium in primary ore, physical
and chemical properties of the ores and host rocks, the
meteorological conditions of the area, as well as the
activity of geochemical processes occurring within the
deposit site before its development [29, 30]. We are
talking here about natural leaching, which causes the
formation of different ratios of uranium to its decay
products.
Based on the analysis of the situations at the
proposed uranium legacy sites, a summary of the
measures for classifying the sites in the “legacy”
category was made, which are presented in Table 2.
These measures are worth considering them to be used
for future development of quantitative criteria for
classifying the sites in the “legacy” category.
Table 2
Measures to refer the site to the “legacy” category of Ukraine
No. Measures to refer the site to the “legacy” category
1 Determination of the equivalent dose rate of gamma radiation on the territory of a site – more than a
background value (more than 0.15…0.20 μS/h)
2 Determination of radionuclides
238
U -
234
U -
230
Th -
226
Ra -
210
Po -
210
Pb,
230
Th in environmental
components – soil, water, aerosols
3 Determination of the Rn-222 volume concentrations within the former industries sites, industrial and
residential buildings, in residential areas
4 Determination of Rn-222 exhalation on the surface of tailings and wastes dumps, contaminated
mining and other industries sites
5 Determination the accompanying elements content, the concentration of which exceeds the
background for each site ‒ for example, V, Sc, Cr, As, Ni for the territories of uranium mining sites for
the deposits of albitite formation
6 Determination of radionuclides and toxic elements content in aerosols that are collected at industrial
sites, personnel workplaces, residential areas and areas of earthworks and construction works
The programs of international technical cooperation
aimed at providing assistance in implementation of
rehabilitation projects are actively being developed in
uranium related companies of the EU countries. The
analysis suggests that effectiveness of such projects
largely depends on the availability of appropriate
national environmental safety strategies, regulatory
requirements and regulatory mechanisms, as well as
experience in managing similar projects in accordance
with international standards. Such activity requires a lot
of financial support and fruitful cooperation between
governmental institutions (including the research ones),
the EU, international organizations, SE “ShidGZK”,
local self-government bodies and non-governmental
organizations.
CONCLUSIONS
Drawing on case studies, mining and milling
facilities sites where TENORM sources are available,
should be considered more broadly than just uranium
waste. These are sources of ionizing radiation of natural
origin that were subjected to concentration or their
accessibility was increased as a result of human
activities (mineral raw materials mining, milling,
enrichment; water treatment and purification, etc.). As a
result additional to natural radiation exposure is formed.
In the future, due attention should be paid to the issues
of environmental and radiation safety of territories
where sources of naturally occurring radioactive
materials are available.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was done in the framework of
cooperation between the Scientific Center for Aerospace
Research of the Earth (CASRE) of the National
Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and the National
Aviation University based on the Agreement on
Scientific and Technical Cooperation № 48-нт-22 as of
26. Oct. 2022.
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Article received 17.04.2023
ТЕРИТОРІЇ ВИДОБУВАННЯ І ПЕРЕРОБЛЕННЯ УРАНОВОЇ РУДИ
ЯК ТЕХНОГЕННО-ПІДСИЛЕНІ ДЖЕРЕЛА РАДІАЦІІЇ ПРИРОДНОГО ПОХОДЖЕННЯ
Т.В. Дудар
Наведено дані щодо бази даних уранових родовищ для ідентифікації радіоактивного матеріалу та джерел
природної радіації в межах Українського кристалічного щита. Території видобування і перероблення
уранової сировини розглядаються, з точки зору техногенно-підсилених джерел радіоактивності природного
походження, за запропонованою класифікацією потенційних об’єктів уранової спадщини. Представлено
заходи щодо визначення об’єктів уранової спадщини України.
https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012309
https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012309
https://www.iaea.org/resources/databases/itdb
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-021-00349-w
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40779-021-00349-w
https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.1730
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