Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes
The APGD with rotating star-shaped electrodes was applied directly to the surface of liquid as a counter electrode. It was shown that the rotation of electrodes enables the stabilization of the discharged. A high concentration of H₂O₂ and nitrates were measured. The high level of microbial reduction...
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Golota, V. Mohanty, P. Zavada, L. 2023-12-11T12:37:05Z 2023-12-11T12:37:05Z 2023 Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes / V. Golota, P. Mohanty, L. Zavada // Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. — 2023. — № 4. — С. 147-150. — Бібліогр.: 9 назв. — англ. 1562-6016 PACS: 52.77.−j, 52.80.−s, 52.80.Hc DOI: https://doi.org/10.46813/2023-146-147 https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/196193 The APGD with rotating star-shaped electrodes was applied directly to the surface of liquid as a counter electrode. It was shown that the rotation of electrodes enables the stabilization of the discharged. A high concentration of H₂O₂ and nitrates were measured. The high level of microbial reduction was shown for inoculated deionized water treated by APGD with rotating electrodes. Використовувався тліючий розряд атмосферного тиску (APGD) між обертовим зіркоподібним електродом і поверхнею води в якості другого електрода. Показано, що обертання електродів дозволяє стабілізувати розряд. Була зафіксована висока концентрація H₂O₂ та нітратів. Високий рівень мікробного зменшення було показано для інокульованої деіонізованої води, обробленої APGD з обертовими електродами. en Національний науковий центр «Харківський фізико-технічний інститут» НАН України Problems of Atomic Science and Technology Gas discharge, plasma-beam discharge and their applications Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes Безпосередня обробка води APGD з обертовими електродами Article published earlier |
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Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes |
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Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes Golota, V. Mohanty, P. Zavada, L. Gas discharge, plasma-beam discharge and their applications |
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Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes |
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Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes |
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Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes |
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Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes |
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direct water treatment by apgd with rotating electrodes |
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Golota, V. Mohanty, P. Zavada, L. |
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Golota, V. Mohanty, P. Zavada, L. |
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Gas discharge, plasma-beam discharge and their applications |
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Gas discharge, plasma-beam discharge and their applications |
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Problems of Atomic Science and Technology |
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Article |
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Безпосередня обробка води APGD з обертовими електродами |
| description |
The APGD with rotating star-shaped electrodes was applied directly to the surface of liquid as a counter electrode. It was shown that the rotation of electrodes enables the stabilization of the discharged. A high concentration of H₂O₂ and nitrates were measured. The high level of microbial reduction was shown for inoculated deionized water treated by APGD with rotating electrodes.
Використовувався тліючий розряд атмосферного тиску (APGD) між обертовим зіркоподібним електродом і поверхнею води в якості другого електрода. Показано, що обертання електродів дозволяє стабілізувати розряд. Була зафіксована висока концентрація H₂O₂ та нітратів. Високий рівень мікробного зменшення було показано для інокульованої деіонізованої води, обробленої APGD з обертовими електродами.
|
| issn |
1562-6016 |
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https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/196193 |
| citation_txt |
Direct water treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes / V. Golota, P. Mohanty, L. Zavada // Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. — 2023. — № 4. — С. 147-150. — Бібліогр.: 9 назв. — англ. |
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| first_indexed |
2025-11-27T07:50:49Z |
| last_indexed |
2025-11-27T07:50:49Z |
| _version_ |
1850806996072136704 |
| fulltext |
ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2023. № 4(146) 147
https://doi.org/10.46813/2023-146-147
DIRECT WATER TREATMENT BY APGD
WITH ROTATING ELECTRODES
V. Golota
1
, P. Mohanty
1
, L. Zavada
2
1
University of Michigan, Deaborn, MI, USA;
2
National Science Center “Kharkov Institute of Physics and Technology”, Kharkiv, Ukraine
E-mail: golota@umich.edu
The APGD with rotating star-shaped electrodes was applied directly to the surface of liquid as a counter elec-
trode. It was shown that the rotation of electrodes enables the stabilization of the discharged. A high concentration
of H2O2 and nitrates were measured. The high level of microbial reduction was shown for inoculated deionized
water treated by APGD with rotating electrodes.
PACS: 52.77.−j, 52.80.−s, 52.80.Hc
INTRODUCTION
The Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharge (APGD)
is one of the most widely used sources of Low-
Temperature Nonequilibrium Plasma, which has found
broad industrial applications including gas and water
treatment, chemical conversion and materials synthesis,
food processing and medicine [1]. Visually APGD di-
vides into two zones: bright – ionization layer and glow-
ing – diffuse/drift zone [2]. Near a sharp electrode, a
strong electric field forms a narrow ionization layer, in
which enough charged particles are generated for the
self-sustaining development of the discharge. The dif-
fuse zone with a relatively low electric field covers the
remaining (biggest) part of the discharge gap. The com-
plex plasma-chemical processes, as well as the transpor-
tation of charged particles to the electrode, occur in the
diffuse zone. APGD has attracted the attention of many
researchers [3] because the entire discharge gap oper-
ates as a plasma-chemical reactor and provides chemical
reactivity at low gas temperature. However, APGD has
one significant weakness, it is an uncontrollable transi-
tion/contraction of the discharge from the volume dis-
charge mode to the spark mode with a thin hot discharge
channel. Such a transition to the spark has a destructive
effect on the electrodes, changes the variety of generat-
ed reactive species and remains an exceptional chal-
lenge both for experimental studies and for many
emerging applications.
There are three common practices to control early
transition to the spark. They are: (i) ballast resistors in
discharge circuit, (ii) high speed gas flow, and (iii) very
short pulse duration of applied HV. Ballast resistors are
used to prevent sparks by reducing the voltage across
the discharge gap when the discharge current exceeds a
predetermined limit. Laroussi et al. [4] realized stable
APGD by using suitable material with resistivity in the
range of 10
9
…10
10
Ω instead of using dielectric layer
normally used in Dielectric Barrier Discharge. The
high-speed gas flow has a more complex effect on the
discharge. Akishev et al. [5] used point-to-sphere elec-
trode geometry and a fast gas flow to produce APGD by
DC negative corona discharge. They studied in detail
the effect of the electrode geometry and gas flow veloci-
ty on the transition of corona-to-glow and glow-to-spark
mode in ambient air. They demonstrated that a high-
speed gas flow disperses the charged cloud formed in
the discharge gap and reduces its shielding effect; addi-
tionally, the gas and the electrode surface are cooled
down by the gas flow, helping to keep the ionization
rate at its lowest level. Typically, the APGD with high-
speed gas flow works for applications requiring large
volumes of gas to be treated with a relatively low con-
centration of active species. The short HV pulse dura-
tion (usually a range of nanoseconds) with the short
voltage rising time is a relatively new and very effective
method to generate APGD, however this technic re-
quires a complex HV pulsed power supply with pulses
of nanoseconds range which has a poor power efficien-
cy (usually less than 50%). Moreover, EMI shielding is
a challenge for these HV short pulse power generators.
All these three methods for the discharge stabiliza-
tion are currently being used in a broad range of practi-
cal applications. However, as highlighted in the report
“The 2022 Plasma Roadmap” [3], novel and expanding
fields of applications for low-temperature plasma re-
quire the development of new and unique low-
temperature plasma sources with high energy efficiency,
specifically, capable operated with liquid electrodes
and/or in high humidity plasma-forming gases.
In conventional APGD systems, when the electrodes
are stationary, upon application of high voltage across
the electrodes, the ionization of gases begins in vicinity
of the tip of the sharp electrode, and then the ionization
front propagates through the discharge gap either in the
form of a streamer or in the form of an ionization wave.
However, due to the weakness of the electric field at a
distance from the sharp electrode, i.e., in the diffuse
zone, the electrons begin to attach to molecules and
atoms forming a charged cloud that shields the sharp
electrode, and the ionization around the sharp electrode
comes to the end until the charged cloud disperse and
decay, and then the shielding effect comes to the end
and the cycle will be repeated again. Because the mobil-
ity of ions and charged molecules is low, the next dis-
charge cycle will develop and pass along the same dis-
charge channel that was formed in the previous dis-
charge cycle. The repeated pass through the same chan-
nel will heat the channel, the pressure in the channel
will drop and ionization will increase, and, as result, the
spark breakdown occurs. Although details of the spark
breakdown mechanism remain unclear, the above-
described mechanism of the thermal instability for a
spark is well established. As the transition of APGD to
148 ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2023. № 4(146)
the spark has unpredictable behavior, a major challenge
for many low-temperature plasma applications is to
keep the APGD stable and operating at high specific
power input.
In this article, the innovative Atmospheric Pressure
Glow Discharge with Rotating Electrode will be exam-
ined for the direct plasma water treatment. Over the
conventional stationary electrode discharge system, the
rotating electrode has a significant advantage. The rota-
tion of electrodes allows stabilization of the discharge,
shifts the glow-to-spark transition towards higher volt-
age and increases the specific energy input to the dis-
charge. The physical phenomena behind these ad-
vantages can be explained as follows. When the elec-
trode rotation speed is higher than the ion drift velocity,
the tips of the sharp electrodes surrounded by the ioni-
zation layer will run away from the diffuse zone of the
discharge, increasing the electrical resistance of the
discharge gap and, therefore, continuing to stabilize the
discharge. In addition, the tips movement will elongate
and rupture the discharge channel, preventing the for-
mation of a spark. Further, the electrode movement
through the gas will lead to cooling down of the electrode
tips and mixing of the gas in the discharge gap. Thus, a
plasma system with rotating electrodes can potentially be
a promising way to suppress thermal instability in a low-
temperature plasma-chemical reactor. This is especially
relevant for the discharge with liquid electrodes and high
humidity plasma-feeding gases.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
To study the effect of direct treatment of water by
APGD, a device with rotating electrodes was built. The
device includes a shaft with a set of star-like electrodes;
reactor housing; overflow bath/tray; water tank; recircu-
lation water pump; an electric motor with gears joined
to the shaft and HV power supply unit connected to the
rotating shaft. Fig. 1 shows the schematic drawing of
the developed device.
Fig. 1: The schematic of the experimental system
with rotating electrodes
The set of star-like electrodes disposed radially
along the longitudinal axis of the plasma-chemical reac-
tor and individual star-like electrodes separated with
spacer from one another. The shaft with a set of star-like
electrodes is rotationally supported in the isolated reac-
tor housing by a pair of bearings, one end of the shaft
joined to the electrical motor through a gearbox with 1:1
ratio. The gears are made from insulating material to
provide electrical isolation for the motor. The power
regulator module sets the rotation speed for star-like
electrodes up to 10000 RPM. The bottom part of the
reactor housing is open to allow discharge above the
water surface of the overflowing bath. The water over-
flows to the water tank and then the recirculating pump
continuously pumps water back to the overflowing bath
to keep the water level stable, as well as a distance be-
tween tips of rotating electrodes and water surface. The
total water volume was 4.4 liters, the rate of recirculat-
ing pump is 3 lpm. An electrical contact for a high volt-
age supply is provided at the other end of the shaft with
star-like electrodes. The adjustable DC high voltage
power supply (0…20 kV, 0…5 mA) with positive polar-
ity was used to power the plasma-chemical reactor.
The current and voltage signals from the reactor
were gathered by the high voltage probe Tektronix
P6015A and current probe Tektronix CT2 and were
analyzed with oscilloscope Tektronix TDS 3034. The
digital power meter KUMAN KW-47 was used to con-
trol the total power input to the plasma-chemical reac-
tor. The electrode rotation speed was controlled with the
digital laser tachometer EXTECH 461920-NIST, range
2-99.000 RPM. The temperature and humidity were
measured by the thermo-hygrometer Michell Instru-
ments MDM25.
To test water parameters the following devices and
kits were used: Thermo Scientific Orion Star A211 pH
Meter with 9165BNWP Sure-Flow pH electrode and
927007MD ATC probe; Myron L Ultrapen PT1
EC/TDS 1-9999 µS or ppm; Hach Water Quality Test
strips: Nitrate 0…50 ppm, Nitrite 0…3.0 ppm; Water-
Works Hydrogen peroxide test strips 0.5…100 ppm
(0.5-2-5-10-25-50-100 ppm); Chemetrics Dissolved
Ozone Meter with Vacu-vials Kit I-2019 0-5.0ppm.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Plasma-Liquid surface interaction is an emerging
and fast-growing topic of the Low Temperature Plasma
research because they offer unique conditions that ena-
ble decontamination of pathogens, synthesis of nano-
materials, and treat of contaminated water. Plasma-
Liquid discharge makes a very complex impact on the
water surface such as charged particles, UV photons,
electric field, reactive species (O3, OH, NOx). Result of
such interaction is the saturation of interfacial water
layer with ozone, reactive oxygen species and reactive
nitrogen species, hydrogen peroxide, increasing of
acidity and mixing of the water, all this together give a
strong effect on water contaminants, including high oxi-
dative stresses on bacteria and other pathogens [6]. But
the challenge with keeping a steady Plasma-Liquid Dis-
charge is that the surface of the liquid is extremely unsta-
ble due to the electric field and the influence of the ionic
wind. Further, the water surface is also unstable due to
the water flowing through the reactor. Waves on the
water surface lead to fluctuations in the height of the
discharge gap and an early transition of the glow-to-
spark.
As was mentioned above, one of the new and most
promising methods to stabilize the Plasma-Liquid Dis-
charge is the rotation of the electrodes. Let’s make the
estimation of the threshold velocity which is required to
stabilize the discharge. Because the rotation of elec-
trodes should suppress the thermal instability, the rota-
tion speed of electrode pins should be higher compared
to the ion drift velocity. The ion mobility in air at at-
mospheric pressure, μ, is estimated to be in the range of
ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2023. № 4(146) 149
1.5…2.2 cm
2
·V
−1
·s
−1
depending on the humidity [7].
The electric field in the diffusing zone of the discharge is
typically in a range 3…5 kV·cm
-1
. Therefore, the estima-
tion for average ion drift velocity is (5…10)∙10
2
cm·s
-1
.
When the electrode has a diameter of 65 mm, the tips of
electrodes get a velocity of 10∙10
2
cm/s if the rotation
speed is 3000 RPM. For the same electrode with the
diameter of 65 mm, at rotation speed 6000 RPM, the
velocity of the electrode tips will be 20∙10
2
cm·s
-1
,
which is greater than the speed of a charged cloud decay
in the diffused zone, associated with an ion drift veloci-
ty of (5…10)∙10
2
cm·s
-1
. New streamers or ionization
waves will be formed in the fresh/low ionized air, which
should prevent the development of thermal instability that
occurs due to the propagation of multiple streamers along
the same channel. The stable running APGD with rotat-
ing electrodes above the water surface is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Prototype reactor with rotary electrode
with liquid counter electrode
As mentioned above, the APGD above the water
surface is very effective in generating active particles.
As an example, the variation in discharge characteristics
and water parameters during the treatment of deionized
water with a total volume of 4.4 l using positive polarity
APGD with a rotating electrode above the water surface
is shown in Table 1. The total treatment time was 360
min, measurements and samples were taken after 0, 30,
60, 90, 120, 240, and 360 min.
Table 1
Plasma and water characterization during direct water
treatment by APGD with rotating electrodes, rotation
speed – 4400 rpm
Treatment
time, min
0 30 60 90 120 240 360
I, mA 0 2.4 2 2 2 2 2
V, kV 0 15.2 15.3 15.3 15.6 15.6 15.6
Power, W 0 49 47 48 47 47 46
pH 6 6 5.5 5 5 4.5 4.5
EC, uS/cm 40 120 186 240 305 496 740
H2O2, ppm 0 1 4 7 10 17 20
NO3, ppm 0 3 5 10 12 25 30
NO2, ppm 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
O3, ppm 0 0 0 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Twater, °C 26 29 32 33 33 36 35
The concentration of the dissolved ozone in the
plasma treated water is very low, less than 0.5 ppm (see
Table 1), due to the suppression of ozone synthesis
under the high humidity condition and low ozone trans-
fer rate through the water surface compared to gas-water
mixing system, for example, Venturi injectors. Further,
the presence of strong oxidizers (H2O2 and O3) in water
makes the nitrite concentration (NO2-) almost zero.
The concentration of nitrates (NO3-) and hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) in treated water is given in Table 1 and
shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Variation of concentration H2O2 and NO2 in the
deionized water exposed to APGD. Total water volume
is 4.4 l. Average discharge power is around 50 W
It was expected that nitrate would accumulate in the
water and that the concentration of nitrates (NO3-)
would increase with treatment time, but the concentra-
tion of hydrogen peroxide was surprisingly high. This
can be explained by the high humidity conditions in the
discharge and may indicate the presence of the high
concentration of OH-radicals [8].
During treatment, the temperature of the water slow-
ly rises because of the heating from the discharge and
submersible recirculation pump. Fig. 4 shows the varia-
tion in pH and electrical conductivity EC of the treated
water at different treatment time under the APGD with
the rotating electrodes.
Fig. 4. pH and EC measurement in the deionized water
exposed to APGD with the rotating electrodes.
Total water volume is 4.4 l. Average discharge power
is around 50 W
As expected, the pH level decreases during plasma
treatment, and it correlates with an increase of NO3 con-
centration. However, the rapid linear increase in electrical
conductivity EC of the treated water, which is a function
of the accumulation of ions in the water, cannot be ex-
plained either by the concentration of nitrate ions NO3,
nor by the concentration of hydrogen peroxide, because
for the electrical conductivity EC of 700…800 uS/cm, the
concentration of ions must be in 10 times greater com-
pared to the measured concentration of nitrate ions NO3.
Perhaps the rapid linear increase in electrical conductivity
EC can be explained by the accumulation of hydrogen
ions H+ (or hydronium H3O+) in water, which has high
150 ISSN 1562-6016. Problems of Atomic Science and Technology. 2023. № 4(146)
ion mobility, and many other reactive ions that were not
measured in the current tests.
More importantly, these reactive species in plasma-
activated water, namely reactive oxygen species and
reactive nitrogen species, such as nitric oxide radicals,
nitrite, nitrate, atomic oxygen and ozone, can provide
the strong antimicrobial effect [9] by inducing high
oxidative stress on bacteria and other pathogens.
To examine the microbial reduction ability of APGD
with the rotating electrode, 1.5 l of deionized water was
inoculated with 1 ml E. coli test cultures. The initial
concentration of E. coli in the bulk water averaged be-
tween 7.05E5 to 1.88E6 CFU/ml. The water was then
circulated through the system without plasma discharge.
The 0-minute sample was collected immediately before
the start of plasma treatment. The electrode rotation and
plasma power supply were then started, and water sam-
ples were collected every 15 min thereon. The average
power of the plasma was ~50 W, in positive polarity.
The treated water samples were serial diluted (1:10,
1:10
2
, 1:10
3
, 1:10
4
, 1:10
5
), plated and incubated for
enumeration. Images of Petri dishes with samples of
different dilution after incubation 36 hours are shown in
Fig. 5. Table 2 shows the test data of water samples
taken from inoculated water treated by APGD for 0, 15,
30, 45, and 60 min.
Fig. 5. Images of Petri dishes with water samples treat-
ed by APGD for 0, 15-, 30-, 45- and 60-min.
Dilution 1:10, 1:10
2
, 1:10
3
, 1:10
4
, 1:10
5
Table 2
Microbial reduction during direct water treatment
by APGD with rotating electrodes
(TNC – Too Numerous to Count)
Sample, min 0 15 30 45 60
pH 6 6 6 5.5 5.5
H2O2, ppm 0 1.5 5 5 7
Bacteria
counts
1:10 TNC TNC 400+ 8 0
1:10
2
TNC TNC 387 0 0
1:10
3
400+ 385 52 0 0
1:10
4
133 28 1 1 0
1:10
5
19 5 1 0 0
The data presented in Table 2 is a composite of 3
repetition tests. As shown, a greater than 4 log reduction
of E. coli was observed after 45 min of APGD treatment
of the inoculated deionized water.
CONCLUSIONS
The innovative Atmospheric Pressure Glow Dis-
charge with Rotating Electrode was tested for direct
plasma discharge treatment of water. It demonstrated
both the high level of microbial reduction and the high
concentration of hydrogen peroxide in plasma treated
water. Over the conventional stationary electrode dis-
charge system, the rotating electrode enables the im-
proving of the long-term stability of discharge, sup-
pressing thermal instability, and increasing the specific
power consumption of the discharge.
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Article received 10.07.2023
БЕЗПОСЕРЕДНЯ ОБРОБКА ВОДИ APGD З ОБЕРТОВИМИ ЕЛЕКТРОДАМИ
В. Голота, П. Моханті, Л. Завада
Використовувався тліючий розряд атмосферного тиску (APGD) між обертовим зіркоподібним електро-
дом і поверхнею води в якості другого електрода. Показано, що обертання електродів дозволяє стабілізувати
розряд. Була зафіксована висока концентрація H2O2 та нітратів. Високий рівень мікробного зменшення було
показано для інокульованої деіонізованої води, обробленої APGD з обертовими електродами.
https://uigelz.eecs.umich.edu/pub/articles/JAP_129_200902_2021.pdf
https://uigelz.eecs.umich.edu/pub/articles/JAP_129_200902_2021.pdf
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