Brief history of THz and IR technologies
A brief history of terahertz (THz) and infrared (IR) science and technology, for learning lessons by historical evolution, is presented and discussed, identifying important (from the author’s point of view) steps for their development.
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| Опубліковано в: : | Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics |
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| Дата: | 2019 |
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Інститут фізики напівпровідників імені В.Є. Лашкарьова НАН України
2019
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| Цитувати: | Brief history of THz and IR technologies / F.F. Sizov // Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics. — 2019. — Т. 22, № 1. — С. 67-79. — Бібліогр.: 125 назв. — англ. |
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Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine| _version_ | 1860479877953617920 |
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| author | Sizov, F.F. |
| author_facet | Sizov, F.F. |
| citation_txt | Brief history of THz and IR technologies / F.F. Sizov // Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics. — 2019. — Т. 22, № 1. — С. 67-79. — Бібліогр.: 125 назв. — англ. |
| collection | DSpace DC |
| container_title | Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics |
| description | A brief history of terahertz (THz) and infrared (IR) science and technology, for learning lessons by historical evolution, is presented and discussed, identifying important (from the author’s point of view) steps for their development.
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| first_indexed | 2026-03-23T18:51:15Z |
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ISSN 1560-8034, 1605-6582 (On-line), SPQEO, 2019. V. 22, N 1. P. 67-79.
© 2019, V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
67
Optoelectronics and optoelectronic devices
Brief history of THz and IR technologies
F.F. Sizov
V. Lashkaryov Institute of Semiconductor Physics, NAS of Ukraine,
41, prospect Nauky, 03680 Kyiv, Ukraine, e-mail: sizov@isp.kiev.ua
Abstract. Brief history of terahertz (THz) and infrared (IR) science and technology, for
learning lessons by historical evolution is presented and discussed identifying important
(from Author’s point of view) steps for their development. THz still is the not well-known
region of electro-magnetic science, even it has been lightened by starting of scientific and
technological knowledge, since the end of 19th century. As concerning history of IR science
and technology, it took many years since 1800 (W. Hershel) to reach the level of use that is
recognized today. The link between IR and thermal science and applications was so strong
that IR was for a long time synonymous of thermography. THz science and technology are
showing a rapid growth. IR and, especially THz technologies, now have become one of the
major fields of applied research. Nowadays, they become widely spread in their use in
astrophysics, security, biomedicine, detection of hidden objects, food and art inspection,
etc. The increasing requirements for fast transmission of large amounts of data will lead to
the extension of operation frequencies in communications toward the THz frequency range.
IR and THz medical imaging can provide guidance for surgeons in delimiting the tumor
margins, help clinicians visualize diseased area, etc. A few decades ago, IR technologies
were mainly the domain of military ones. In recent two decades, due to widespread of low-
cost thermal uncooled arrays there were realized many IR technology advances in civil and
military applications. A large amount of THz technologies mass-market applications can’t
be highlighted, as these technologies do not meet yet the user requirements, especially in
easiness of use and costs. Still, many of THz applications that we have now are emerging
and showing their applicability in some implementations, where other methods can’t give
any comprehensive information, e.g., in dry food inspection for dielectric inclusions, skin
tumour margins control, THz astronomy, package and envelope inspection, etc. The brief
lessons given by historical highlights in THz and IR science and applications can be
important for the future developments in these directions as history frequently opens routes
for new thinking. In this brief review, the missed important steps can happen. Author
apologizes for these possible faults.
Keywords: THz and IR technologies, devices and instrumentation, history.
doi: https://doi.org/10.15407/spqeo22.01.67
PACS 87.50.U-, 87.64.km, 87.80.Dj, 87.85.Ox
Manuscript received 12.01.19; revised version received 17.02.19; accepted for publication
27.03.19; published online 30.03.19.
1. Introduction
The infrared (IR) and, especially terahertz (THz)
technologies, now have become one of the major fields
of applied research driven, to a great degree, by potential
imaging and spectroscopy applications in astronomy,
biomedicine, security screening applications for detecting
hidden objects, dry food inspection, etc. The increasing
demand for fast transmission of large amounts of data
will lead to the extension of operation frequencies in
communications, toward the THz frequency range. The
IR and THz medical imaging technologies can provide
guidance for surgeons in delimiting the margins of
tumors, help clinicians visualize diseased area, etc.
Scientific and particularly application activity in the
THz and IR technologies have significantly increased in
the recent three decades, and it is to be expected that the
trends, especially in THz science and technology, will be
continued and extended.
In these developments, there is a priority to the
developing of imaging and spectroscopic systems. The
THz technologies, due to their non-ionizing influence
and detection capability of hidden objects in clothing as
well as in packaging containers and luggage, when
SPQEO, 2019. V. 22, N 1. P. 67-79.
Sizov F.F. Brief history of THz and IR technologies
68
coupled to the spectroscopic detection of explosives,
chemical and biological agents, are the promising ones.
As concerning the IR technologies, it should be pointed
out their growing usage in the civilian sphere. There is
the noticeable price decrease in these expensive
technologies due to development of new large uncooled
matrix arrays and cameras, which, to a great extent,
revolutionized the civilian and military applications of
imaging.
Here, a brief introduction to the history of THz and
IR technologies for learning by historical lessons is
presented. These brief lessons learnt by historical
highlights in THz and IR science can be expected as
important for the future developments in these directions,
since the history frequently opens routes for new
thinking. In this brief review, the missed important steps
can happen. The author apologizes for these possible
faults.
2. Brief history of THz technologies
The terahertz (THz) region of electromagnetic spectrum
some time ago was often described as the final
unexplored area of the electromagnetic wave spectrum.
Until about three decades ago, the THz range of the
spectrum was complicated of its potential for application,
largely because of the difficulty in providing suitable
sources and detectors. However, during a couple of
recent decades the THz science and technology have
been showing a rapid growth. Now these technologies
are among the widely investigated research topics and
applications (see, e.g., [1, 2]).
Shown in Fig. 1 are electromagnetic spectra from
ultraviolet (UV) to radio wavelength region. Now it is
commonly accepted that the THz region is within
radiation frequencies from ν = 0.1 THz to 10 THz. The
IR region is settled between 0.75 and 30 µm
(ν = 400…10 THz).
Fig. 1. The electromagnetic spectrum with corresponding
molecular excitations [3]. The frequency-dependent amplitude
of a typical terahertz pulse frequency range (0.1…5 THz),
which is frequently used for THz imaging and spectroscopy, is
indicated in the spectrum by the dark-yellow area.
The research in this spectral range seems to have its
origin from the electromagnetic waves (radio waves)
discovery (H. Hertz, 1885–1989, “At this location,
Heinrich Hertz discovered the electromagnetic waves in
the years 1885–1889”, from the Memorial for H. Hertz at
the University of Karlsruhe). The experiments conducted
by Hertz dealt with generating and receiving the EM
waves with the wavelength of 66 cm [4].
H. Hertz had no idea that this transmission of
electromagnetic waves can be used to information
communication [5]. It was Guglielmo M. Marconi, who
thougt he could use Hertzian waves to send signals [6].
Marconi used spark transmitter as no amplitude
modulation technique or active non-linear devices were
known that time.
G. Marconi’s achievement was public demonstra-
tion of sending wireless signal remotely on Salisbury
Plain, U.K., that was not until May 1897. Perhaps, it is
worth noting that J. Bose had given a public demon-
stration of wireless transmission over a mile in 1895 to
remotely ring a bell and to explode gunpowder [4].
Despite the thoughts that it is not feasible to
transmit an information through long distance as EM
waves behave like light and thus couldn’t bend to the
Earth’s curvature, in 1901, G. Marconi first demonstrated
the trans-Atlantic radio waves transmission of around
2000 miles between Poldhu, UK and Newfoundland, St.
Johns, Canada (likely it was at 820 kHz). To detect the
first trans-Atlantic wireless signal (three dots
representing the letter “S”) G. Marconi used a 150 m
long wire antenna put on a kite and “coherer” to convert
an alternating signal into the direct current to measure by
using a telephone receiver to hear this signal. J.C. Bose at
his lecture at Royal Society in 1899 proposed alike
coherer [5, 7].
In Germany, Ch. Hülsmeyer was the first to use
radio waves to detect “the presence of distant metallic
objects” (1904), he demonstrated the feasibility of
detecting a ship in dense fog, but not its distance [8].
The history of THz technologies in different periods
is presented e.g., in a number of papers and books [8-13].
In 1897, H. Rubens and E.F. Nichols first explicitly
noted the existence of a gap in the electromagnetic
spectrum, between the optical and electronic sources of
radiation [13].
Although a lot of works in the THz spectral range
has already been done under the older terms “far
infrared” (see, e.g., [14, 15]) or sub-mm waves (see, e.g.,
[16, 17]), the term “terahertz” stands for a novel
technique offering many potential applications applying
the THz technologies to industry, medicine, detection of
drugs and explosives, telecommunications, etc. The term
“terahertz” also represents a new generation of systems.
Historically, THz technologies were mainly used
within the astronomy community for studying the
background of cosmic far-infrared radiation. They were
also used by the laser-fusion community for the
diagnostics of plasmas. The earliest investigations and
papers on measuring the energy content of the blackbody
radiation in the far infrared region published up to 1920s
SPQEO, 2019. V. 22, N 1. P. 67-79.
Sizov F.F. Brief history of THz and IR technologies
69
were made by H. Rubens [18] in the far IR (FIR) spectral
region. H. Rubens’ experiments were mainly
concentrated on the extension of the IR spectral region
into the FIR and absorption of water vapor in this
spectral region (see [19]).
Now, as it is proved, THz technologies are important
for imaging and spectroscopy in spite of highly absorbing
environmental Earth conditions. The clothing, plastic
packaging equipment and microcircuit bodies are
transparent in the THz spectral range (ν ≤ 1 THz). It
gives the opportunity not only to reveal ceramic weapon
and many types of explosives on the human body as they
are highly reflective substances due to difference in
dielectric permittivity or high water content, but also
different types of diseases (as a rule in the reflection
mode) – biomedical applications. It makes usage of THz
technologies to be challenging in various types of
applications.
For THz science and technology, important was the
work by J.C. Bose at the Presidency College, Calcutta,
with which he started in the 1894 on wireless sub-THz
experiments with new sensors, spark generators,
polarizers and sources. The shortest wavelength used in
Bose’s experiments was about 5 mm. He invented con-
tact detectors involving metals and semiconductors [20].
Important was an invention of galena crystal
detector [21]. In this patent J.C. Bose claimed “A coherer
or detector of electrical disturbances, Hertzian waves,
light-waves or other radiations, comprising contacting
pieces of sensitive substance having a characteristic
curve (giving the relation between an increasing
impressed electromotive force and the resultant current
passing through the sensitive substance), which is not
straight but is either convex or concave”. This was a
point-contact semiconductor rectifier, involving a contact
device with galena (lead sulfide), the first patent for a
semiconductor device in the world (see, e.g., [8, 13]).
Later this device was used as a receiver for demodulation
continuous wave radio signals. This was the first
semiconductor diode detector, although the terms
“diode” and “semicon-ductor” were not known yet. In
1954, G. Pearson and W. Brattain [22] gave priority to
Bose for the use of a semiconducting crystal as a detector
of radio waves.
After the World War I, E.F. Nichols performed a
series of experiments with short electric waves by
developing improved radiometer receivers and Hertzian
oscillators. E.F. Nichols and J.D. Tear (1923) succeeded
in obtaining wavelengths down to 1.8 mm by using the
interferometric method [13]. In 1923, A. Glagoleva-
Arkadieva [23] showed the possibility to get a source
(using Al sawdust in thick oil as Hertzian oscillators)
operating within the wavelengths from 5 cm down to
82 µm (ν ≈ 3.66 THz). These works in producing such
electromagnetic wavelengths filled the gap between
spectra of the IR and radio wavelengths.
From the middle of 1920s up to 1950s–1960s, there
was a relatively steady flow of papers, when a rapid
expansion of papers began growing up (see, e.g., [1, 10]).
Radar (radio-detection and ranging) was invented in
1930s, whereas a working radar system for detection of
ships was actually demonstrated in Germany in 1904
(C. Huelsmeyer) [8] not allowing to directly measure the
distance to a target but detecting only the presence of
distant objects. This work was not materialized in
applications, since there was no real need for radar at that
time. It was not until the maturing of the airplane in 1930
that a real need for radar to be developed. By 1939,
England had established a chain of radar stations along
its south and east coasts to detect aggressors in the air or
on the sea. Except UK, several nations were
independently developing the systems of this type
(Germany, the United States, the former USSR, Japan,
the Netherlands, France, and Italy). The designing and
testing of gun-aiming radar was performed in Ukraine
(Kharkiv) in 1935–1940 [24]. The role in the develop-
ment of Ukrainian microwave, antenna, radar and remote
sensing was indicated in 2015 by awarding the status of
IEEE Milestone [25]. The development of radar systems
led to new magnetron and klystron sources, and these
were employed for microwave spectroscopy experiments.
Since then, it followed a continual progress and
development in technology for both sources and
detectors. Shortly after the World War II, the Golay cell,
which is still in use today, was proposed (M.J.E. Golay,
1946–1947) (see part “Brief history of IR technologies”).
The genesis of microwave, and ultimately THz
spectroscopy, was the war time development of
microwave radar. By 1948, the field was mature enough
[26]. The technology advanced rapidly and by 1954 the
submillimeter threshold at 300 GHz had been passed
[27]. This drive toward ever higher frequencies was aided
by the rapidly increasing absorption strengths of the
spectra of many of the most important small fundamental
molecules (e.g., carbon, chlorine, nitrogen, oxygen, etc.).
Prediction of the existence of “relict radiation” (the
cosmic microwave background (CMB)) remaining from
the “Big Bang” was made in 1948 by R. Alpher and
G. Gamow [28] developing G. Lemaître’s Big Bang
theory (late 1920s–1930s). R. Alpher and R. Herman
estimated what temperature of the cosmic microwave
background ought to be. They obtained T ≈ 5 K (the
precise measured temperature of microwaves is
T = 2.725 degrees Kelvin [29] that corresponds to
λmax ≈ 1.064 mm (νmax ≈ 282 GHz) of the blackbody
radiation. Measurements of the CMB at various
frequencies from different platforms showed it to have
the spectrum of thermal blackbody spectrum, as
predicted by the Big Bang model [30].
The first direct observation of CMB was made in
1964 by A. Penzias and R. Wilson [31], who were trying
to measure background microwave interference to enable
noise-free communication within this spectral band for
AT&T. They were conducting experiments with the
sensitive Holmdel Horn Antenna, originally used to
detect radio waves that were bounced off Echo
balloon satellites, and later the Telstar, the first active
communications satellite. They determined that the
SPQEO, 2019. V. 22, N 1. P. 67-79.
Sizov F.F. Brief history of THz and IR technologies
70
buzzing noise was coming from all parts of the sky at
all times of day and night from outside of our galaxy.
During 1950s, foundations were laid from grating
spectroscopy, in which for high resolution narrow slits
were required, to Fourie-transform spectroscopy (FTS)
having large apertures, though it was progressing
relatively slow, which was mainly caused by limitations
of computer technique. Of the papers published in 1950s,
about 80% concerned applications were related with the
study of semiconductor optical properties (e.g., cyclotron
resonance), absorption spectra of gases, diagnostics of
high-temperature plasmas, etc. [10].
In the early 1950s, there appeared the first
carcinotrons or backward wave oscillators (BWO). This
high power (mW range at 1 THz) source was
demonstrated for the first time in 1952 offering a limited
electronic tunability (~10%). It was French-made BWO
tube [32] that was called carcinotrons – derived from the
Greek word for Cancer (crab). The late 1950s are
characterized by starting the development of high-power
gyrotrons (the USA, Australia, the former USSR) [10].
The gyrotrons are members of a specific family of
devices in the class of vacuum electronic sources of
coherent microwave radiation.
Important for using in radar and alarm systems as
GHz radiation sources are IMPATT diodes. In 1958, W.
Read [33] proposed operation principles of this device.
W. Read showed that an avalanche diode, when impact
ionization is used to inject electrons, a significant transit
time delay might exhibit a negative resistance
characteristic that is required for the beginning of
oscillations. Devised in 1959 were avalanche transit-time
diodes (IMPATT diodes) in Ge on the base of coherent
oscillations generation at avalanche breakdown
microwave frequency diffusion diodes (for Refs. see
[34]). Later, the devices (oscillators) based on the
phenomenon of microwave frequencies generation were
realized in Si and GaAs diodes [35, 36]. The IMPATT
diodes have received much attention in recent years as
cost-effective and low-sized THz sources. Their device
performance on the base of Si, GaAs, InP has been
improved from year to year. The Si IMPATT diodes have
more reliable and mature technology.
The experiments in the late 1950s and early 1960s
provided a considerable opportunity for THz science: the
emission of THz radiation from heated plasma delivered
temperature and density information; the Golay cell
detection and diffraction grating dispersion (G.N. Har-
ding, et al., 1961) were successfully used in probe
plasma diagnostics within the 100…1500 µm band. At
that time, BWO sources operational frequency range was
subsequently extended to 1 THz and above [13].
The 1960s can be marked by the great progress in
detector and source development. Golay cells were
widely replaced by pyroelectric detectors. New detectors,
though deeply cooled (n-InSb hot electron bolometer, Ge
bolometer, Ge:Ga extrinsic photoconductor, detectors
based on the Josephson effect) were developed.
The important discovery of this decade was the water
vapor laser (1964) followed by several other gas lasers,
which provided radiation of several continuous wave
lines a little bit smaller than the radiation frequency of
1 THz [10].
In the early 1960s, the Gunn effect [37] was found.
Gunn diodes are used in Gunn oscillators. These sources
are widely used today in the frequency range
ν <~ 0.3 THz for radio communications, military and
commercial radar sources.
In the 1960s, there were developed the electrical
discharge-pumped THz sources [38]. They observed
strong submillimeter wave emission from low pressure
water vapor, using the spectrometer. The optically
pumped THz gas lasers [39] were considered. At the
same time, high resolution THz Fourier transform
spectroscopy was developed [40].
Started in the late 1960s were the studies of the
influence of THz and mm-wave radiation on biological
systems. Researchers [41] looked at effects on E. coli.
They surveyed growth of the bacteria after 0.136 THz
irradiation with estimated power 7 µW for 4 hours.
Growth inhibition was observed after 2 hours when cells
were irradiated in the lag phase and after 1.5 hr when
cells were irradiated in the log phase. Later, another
group tried to reproduce this experiment [42]. The same
object (E. coli) was irradiated with 0.136 THz radiation
for 4 hr. In contrast to the former investigations, they did
not find any evidence for growth inhibition.
In 1960–1970s, an appreciable flow of papers
concerning the THz and microwave spectral regions was
registered [1]. These years were important for astronomy
at THz/sub-THz frequencies, due to the progress in
receivers and high-altitude outboard platform
observatories.
The semiconductors band structure conception and
impurity properties of semiconductors were widely
explored at that time using a BWO, interferometer and
molecular-gas laser sources (J.M. Chamberlain et al.,
1969, 1972). Remarkable instrumental progress by D.H.
Martin (1967) was augmented by the developments in
computing techniques, which enabled the full advantages
of Fourier transform spectroscopy to be realized [13].
At the end of 1960s, the time domain spectroscopy
(TDS) was realized [43]. In this paper, a new method for
obtaining the complex permittivity and permeability of
linear materials over a broad range of microwave
frequencies was described by obtaining the reflected and
transmitted transient responses of the component to an
incident subnanosecond risetime pulse and then
performing discrete Fourier transforms.
There can be noted the progress in new detector
technologies for astronomy based on use of uncooled and
cooled fast Schottky barrier diodes (SBDs) for both
direct detection and mixers applicable at sub-THz and
mm-wave spectral regions∗ (for Refs. see, e.g., [45]).
∗ The Schottky barrier diode is named after German
physicist Walter H. Schottky, who analyzed the metal–vacuum
barrier (Schottky–Nordheim) and later the metal-semiconductor
rectifier junction, e.g., [44]. A point contact metal–
semiconductor rectifier was first patented by J.C. Bose in 1904
(see above).
SPQEO, 2019. V. 22, N 1. P. 67-79.
Sizov F.F. Brief history of THz and IR technologies
71
Other detectors important, e.g., in astronomy for
heterodyne systems were deeply cooled superconductor-
insulator-superconductor (SIS) mixers [46] although the
physics of these devices was developed almost two
decades earlier.
Important for applications THz sources can be
realized with optical-to-THz conversion by using
nonlinear materials as interaction media as well as with
photoconductors and photodiodes. In the late 1960s –
early 1970s, tunable sub-THz radiation obtained by the
mixing procedure in nonlinear crystals was used [47, 48].
In 1971, the operation principle of quantum cascade
lasers (QCLs) was proposed [49] and first demonstration
of QCL was realized at Bell Labs in 1994 [50]. QCLs
now are frequently used as solid-state THz narrow-band
sources in the frequency range ν > 1 THz.
THz imaging applications in other than
astronomical applications started in the middle of 1970s
(see, e.g., [51]). In this paper, the THz imaging system
was based on an HCN laser (operation wavelength λ =
337 µm (ν = 0.89 THz)).
In this decade, it was known that an ultra-short
optical pulse colliding a photoconductor can generate
THz pulses. The highest frequency of the THz pulses
depends on the optical pulse width and also on the
electron mobility in the photoconductor. In the mid-
1970s, technology of generating optical pulses from a
mode-locked Nd:glass laser and high-resistivity Si [52]
was used for switching with the photoconductive (PC)
structure. This PC switch is often called as Auston
switch. The availability of short optical pulses and the
development of PC ultrafast semiconductor technology
promoted THz optoelectronics. In 1983, D. Auston and
P. Smith [53] using the sampling technique showed
coherent detection of a short burst of THz radiation.
Ge extrinsic photoconductive (though noisy in spite
of cooling to liquid He temperatures) detectors were used
up to the wavelength 220 µm (stressed Ge:Ga
photoconductor) [54].
In spite of the fact that THz radiation has been
known for a long time, the technical applications in
biomedicine still have not been developed through a lack
of suitable sources and detectors [12]. During the recent
two to three decades, these problems to a certain degree
have been solved.
In the late 1970s, there performed were
investigations [55] of hemoglobin and alcohol
dehydrogenase that were irradiated. The functional
effects were investigated. The authors studied isolated
biological systems including enzymes, antibodies,
biomolecules, and artificial liposomes. There was applied
a sweeping irradiation between 0.075 and 0.115 THz.
There was not explicitly specified the exposure time, but
it can be calculated to be around three hours [56].
Alcohol dehydrogenase activity was measured after
irradiation power densities W ≈ 10…50 mW/cm2. No
changes of more than 0.1% were seen. For hemoglobin,
oxygen-binding capacity was measured after irradiation
with 3…13 mW/cm2, and here no changes of more than
0.4% were observed. The experimental investigations
looked at all biological levels from isolated biomolecules
to animals, but up to 2012, no investigation of effects on
the human organism was available. The history of THz
radiation influence on biological systems up to 2010s is
reviewed in [56].
The development in computer technologies (1980s)
had made Fourier-transform systems (FTS) to be
the choice for spectroscopy through the IR and THz
ranges [9].
In the 1980s, the common today methods of THz
radiation generation with the PC antenna (PCA) and
optical rectification (OR) were considered [57-59].
In [60], it was shown that PCA used as an emitter
and a detector have frequency spectra that extend from
ν ~ 100 GHz to over 1 THz. These are important for THz
time-delay spectroscopy (TDS) and imaging. The advent
of mode-locked Ti:sapphire femtosecond lasers [61] in
the early 1990s greatly expanded the field of terahertz
applications in spectroscopy and imaging. Today a lot of
researches in THz spectroscopy and imaging is carried
out using these time-domain spectrometers [10]. In
2000s, THz imaging was applied for non-destructive
quality check of hidden damages in foams after the
accident with Space Shuttle Columbia in 2003.
Generation and coherent detection of sub-
picosecond electronic transients conditioned by
D. Auston and M. Nuss [62] and by C. Fattinger and
D. Grischkowsky [59] were performed.
First lasing in an electrostatic accelerator free
electron laser (FEL) emitting in the THz spectral range
was demonstrated at the University of California Santa
Barbara (UCSB) [63]. It covered the spectral range from
0.3 up to 0.77 THz with 10 kW of peak power. This kind
of sources is space-consumption having room-building
size.
At the end of 1980s, the NbN superconducting hot
electron bolometers HEBs were proposed [64] as THz
mixers with the time constant of about 40 ps, which
allowed to realize the bandwidth of several GHz with an
output of ~ 1 µW local oscillator power (LOP) compared
to ~1 mW LOP for SBDs (for Refs. see, e.g., [65]). This
superconductor film (NbN) HEB is able to work as
thermal detector in a wide spectral range in the IR and
THz domain, but the significant advantage is that it is
also able to work as mixer with a wide bandwidth
(several GHz). HEBs have been known for quite a while,
since the first work on the InSb low-temperature hot-
electron heterodyne detector [66, 67]. But this detector
can be used in heterodyne systems only, where the
bandwidth lies in the MHz range, because of long
recombination times.
In 1993, the PC antenna fabricated on the high-
speed low-temperature (LT) grown GaAs used as
photomixers to generate CW THz radiation [68] was
used. The development of this procedure served as a
basis for THZ spectroscopy and imaging.
Since the first demonstration of THz wave time-
domain spectroscopy (TDS) in 1980s, there has been a
series of significant advances, since more intense THz
sources and higher sensitivity of detectors provide new
SPQEO, 2019. V. 22, N 1. P. 67-79.
Sizov F.F. Brief history of THz and IR technologies
72
opportunities for understanding the basic science in the
THz frequency range. As developments move forward,
THz science will not only have an impact on material
characterization and identification but also have potential
applications in the fields of communications, imaging,
medical diagnostics, health monitoring, environmental
control, chemical and biological sensing, as well as
security and quality-control applications. Twenty-first
century researches in the THz field are one of the most
promising areas of study for transformational advances in
imaging and other interdisciplinary fields (see, e.g., [69]).
In the late 1990s, novel near-field probes were
developed, and various applications were demonstrated
(see, e.g., [70]).
In 1996, M. Dyakonov and M. Shur [71] considered
the THz response of two-dimensional electron gas in the
field-effect transistor channel. Following the
considerations of sub-THz/THz trends, detection was
demonstrated in III–V HEMTs [72], and more recently,
in graphene [73]. As compared to many other uncooled
detectors, these devices (e.g., Si-MOSFET and III-V
HEMT) can be manufactured at foundry level, since their
technology readiness is high.
Recently, acceptable for many THz and IR
applications performances have been obtained with
uncooled microbolometer technology. Relatively low
cost, high pixel number arrays are now demonstrated.
The most reliable and good performances have been
obtained both in IR and THz with good dynamic range
by using VOx and α-Si thin-film materials with thermally
isolated microbridges [74].
In the early 2000s, the demonstrations of THz
(0.1…10 THz) wireless communications were conducted
using both pulsed and continuous waves, which were
generated from photoconductors and photodiodes excited
by pulse lasers and intensity-modulated lasers (for Refs.
see [75]). A little bit later the wireless link employing the
120-GHz band was the first commercial THz
communication system with the allocated bandwidth
close to 18 GHz, which offers 10…20 Gbit/s modulation
for transmission distance of over 5 km was demonstrated.
In the field of THz communications technique, important
progress is the development of active silicon photonics
integrated technologies [76, 77].
3. Brief history of IR technologies
The story of infrared radiation technologies took many
years to reach the level of use that is recognized today.
The foundation of the IR detectors mainly in the 1960–
1970s lead to the growth of thermovision and ground-
based IR astronomy in the atmosphere transparency
windows, and a little bit later to the observations from
the low- and high-altitude observatories to diminish or
exclude the water vapor absorption.
The people guess that imaging in the IR range is a
technology for getting an additional information from
objects that are invisible (e.g., under night conditions) for
human eye, which is only sensitive within the spectral
range approximately from 0.4 to 0.75 µm. First humans
relied on radiation from the Sun.
The first recorded account of an infrared experiment
appears to be that by Jean Batista Della Porta from
Naples in his book “Magiae Naturalis”, published in
1589 [12]. He found that heat could be sensed when
locating a candle in front of a silver plate. When the plate
was removed, the sensing of heat from the candle flame
was reduced.
In a description of experiments made in 1667, of
reflected cold by the Academia del Cimento, it was
shown that the mass of ice placed in a vessel, radiate.
The registered radiation was concentrated by a concave
mirror on a long vertical thermometer and ice made a
sensible repercussion of cold upon a thermometer [78].
It was found [78] the note by Petrus van
Musschenbroek (1692–1761), probably relating to an
experiment made by himself (1755), that the heat from a
charcoal fire placed out of an evacuated vessel. However,
it passes easily through this vessel, and raises the meter
data of a thermometer that was placed at the center of this
vessel.
Temperature is a long established indicator of heat.
As soon as the thermometer was invented, S. Sanctorius
used it in 1612 to measure the heat from the Sun. Using
the thermometer, one can maintain the thermal balance of
a body to control health conditions, temperature rising or
falling enables to conclude of human or animal body
disfunction. C. Huygens, O. Roemer, D. Fahrenheit, and
later R.A.F. de Reaumur proposed the need for a
calibrated scale of thermometers in the late seventeenth
and early eighteenth century. A. Celsius proposed a
centigrade scale based on ice and boiling water.
However, he suggested that boiling water should be zero
and melting ice 100 on his scale. It was C. Linnaeus in
1750 who proposed the reversal of this scale, as it is
known today. The clinical thermometer, which is used
universally in medicine for about 150 years was proposed
by C. Wunderlich in 1868. In the 1960s, there were
proposed liquid crystal sensors for temperature
measurements [79, 80].
Still, the IR technologies obviously started with
amateur astronomer William Herschel’s experiments
with a thermometer in 1800. He placed a prism in the
path of a sun beam, set thermometers after a prism in
various regions of the rainbow and showed that different
colors registered different temperatures. By shifting a
thermometer further after the red part, he observed some
warming. He has concluded it could only be caused by a
form of light that is invisible for the human eye. In 1840,
John Herschel made a simple image by evaporation of a
carbon and alcohol mixture by using focused sunlight.
He named the image a “thermogram” [79, 80].
Remote sensing of IR radiation became of practical
meaning at the end of 1930s – early1940s. It has
continued to develop steadily from the middle of 1950s.
Since that time, the radiometric determination of human
body temperature became an important tool, both for
medical diagnostics and monitoring treatment. Human
heat is associated with many conditions such as
inflammation and infection and these conditions may be
detected/identified by the IR thermography. It is a non-
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Sizov F.F. Brief history of THz and IR technologies
73
0.003
0.002
0.001
0.000
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
λ, µm
W
(λ
),
W
cm
-2
µ
m
-1
Fig. 2. Black-body spectral radiant exitance at T = 300 K. The
colored regions demonstrate the portions of the total power
available for MWIR (3…5 µm) and LWIR (7.5…14 µm)
ranges, respectively.
invasive and a painless tool for physiological functions
related to skin-temperature control [81].
The heat transfer by radiation is of great importance
in medicine, as the radiation flow from the body with
temperature around T ~ 310 K (T ~ 37 °C) is large. At
this temperature, there is situated the maximum radiation
power (see Fig. 2), and the amount of radiation power in
the atmospheric window from ~ 7.5 to 14 µm, in which
mainly the thermovision cameras operated, is
appreciable. That is why the thermovision is an important
instrument to control the thermal balance of human body.
The nude human body emits in all spectral range from
λ = 0 to λ = ∞, according to the Stefan–Boltzmann law
W(T) = σB·T
4, about 1 kW into environment. Here, σB =
= 5.6686·10–12 W/(cm2·K4) is the Stefan–Boltzmann
constant, and it is assumed that the surface area of human
body is S ≈ 2 m2.
At the same temperature of an environment, the
human body is in equilibrium with it and, therefore, does
not loose energy. Whereas, e.g., at an environment
temperature lower ∆T ≈ 20 K the human body heat losses
are about 250 W and an undressed person will quickly
chill.
The IR technologies are finding extensive
applications in technical vision systems, since the
temperature of the objects heated to mean Earth surface
temperature for the max emission is around 300 K.
Within the transmission windows 3…5 and 8…14 µm, it
allows using such instrumentation as thermal passive
imagers for remote sensing and vision at large-scale
distances at night or day surveillance, when different
kinds of camouflages are used for objects to be hidden in
the visible spectral region.
The development of IR detectors in 19th and at the
beginning of 20th centuries was basically related with the
thermal uncooled detectors, which response on “heat”
changing their properties under radiation within the
whole spectral range. These were thermocouples and
bolometers. In 1830, L. Nobili proposed the thermo-
couple as an IR detector [82]. In the 1833, the
multielement thermopile was applied by M. Melloni to
show that a person 10 m away could be detected by
focusing his or her thermal energy on that device [8]. In
1880, S.P. Langley [83], whose main interest was in the
use of the detectors in astronomy, proposed a bolometer
as thermal detector and stated that his bolometer could
detect a cow moving across the field at 1/4 mile away.
In 1893, H. Rubens and B.W. Snow [84] presented
an investigation on the refraction of rays in the materials
pointed out. In 1896, E.F. Nichols [85] found that the
reflectivity of crystalline quartz rose over a narrow
wavelength range near 9 µm from a few % up to almost
the reflectivity of a metal. The reflected radiation from
crystalline quartz is due to lattice vibrations and was
detected with the new radiometer. The spectral range of
high reflectivity in ionic crystals (the range between the
longitudinal and transverse optical phonon frequencies)
now is attributed to the restrahlen band.
H. Rubens and E.F. Nichols built a spectrometer
using multiple restrahlen plates to isolate a very narrow
wavelength band. By changing the reflecting plates, they
could then produce nearly the monochromatic radiation
at a number of different wavelengths, out to beyond
50 µm [12].
At the end of 1890s, the radiation from hot bodies
and its wavelength dependence were of important
concern. Unfortunately, the experimental data obtained
and compared with the blackbody used as an ideal
source, did not agree with the theory. In the 1900,
H. Rubens and K. Kurlbaum (see, e.g., [86]), using the
restrahlen spectrometer, obtained the required
experimenal data in IR range. H. Rubens immediately
visited Max Planck to give him the results who that same
day wrote down the equation. These results were
published in [87], which is now called Planck’s
Radiation Law.
In 1909, A. Einstein, analyzing the energy and
momentum fluctuations in the blackbody radiation,
assumed the validity of Planck’s law and showed that the
expressions for the mean-square energy and momentum
fluctuations split into a sum of two terms. The first is a
wave term that dominates in the Rayleigh–Jeans (long
wavelengths) range of the spectrum and the second –
a particle term that dominates in the Wien law (short
wavelengths) spectral range [88]; cited in Ref. [89]. Both
terms were necessary to describe the fluctuations for the
complete blackbody spectrum.
In 1911, H. Rubens and coworkers showed that the
mercury arc lamp in a quartz envelope was a long-
wavelength IR source able to emit very long wavelength
radiation (210 and 324 µm, THz range) [90, 91]. This
source is still that one capable to generate radiation at
those frequencies (in the 30…50 THz range).
In 1913, one of the first examples for security
applications probably was presented. It was L. Belling-
ham, who patented “an IR eye” capable to detect
“icebergs” at a distance [8].
The second kind of detectors, apart of the thermal
detectors that is called now the photon detectors, was
mainly developed during the 20th century although the
photoconductivity effect (observable in photon detector)
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Sizov F.F. Brief history of THz and IR technologies
74
was discovered in 1873 (W. Smith), in experiments with
selenium as an insulator. In 1917, T.W. Case developed
photoconductive detectors based on Tl2S. In 1904, verily
a photovoltaic detector in galena (natural PbS) – solid-
state diode detector to detect EM waves – was patented
by J. Bose [21] (see part “History of THz technologies”).
The period between the World Wars I and II can be
characterized by the development of photon detectors and
image converters. This idea of an image tube was
proposed in 1928 [92]. In 1934, there was created [93]
the first successful IR converter tube (Holst’ cup). This
tube consisted of a photocathode in close proximity to a
fluorescent screen. Electrons knocked out from the
photocathode by IR photons strike the fluorescent screen
thus transferring an IR image into the visible region.
These image tubes (now called intensifiers with
photocathode, micro-channel plates and fluorescent
screen as the basic elements) are sensitive in the short
range (λ ~ 0.8…1.1 µm) of the IR spectra.
In 1928, M. Czerny documented the first infrared
image of a human subject [94]. The infrared thermal
imaging, applied for recording the surface temperatures
of the human body in early trials in medicine started in
1952 in Germany [95]. A single IR bolometer for thermal
measurement of defined regions of the human body
surface for diagnostic purposes was developed [96]. In
1954, the first medical association of thermography was
established in Germany.
From that time, the medical IR imaging covers a
broad field of applications. Among these applications −
female breast cancer, neurology, vascular imaging,
forensic, surgery, etc., and now is an efficient means of a
noncontact radiometric technique [97, 98].
In the 1930–1940s, there were considerable needs to
register the radiant emission from the objects. In 1934, J.
Hardy showed that the human skin surface has the
characteristics of a near perfect black body radiator,
being highly efficient in irradiative heat exchange [99,
100]. He pointed out, that it is important to know the
precise value of emissivity because an emissivity
difference of 0.945 to 0.98 may cause an error of skin
temperature of 0.6 °C. J. Hardy showed that the human
skin, regardless of color, is a highly efficient radiator
with an emissivity of 0.98, which is close to that of a
black body. In 1960, K. Lloyd-Williams et al. showed
that many tumors are hotter than adjacent skin parts
[101]. Therefore, it was hoped that the thermosense
technique can be used for screening the breast cancer.
In 1933, E.W. Kutzscher (Germany) discovered that
lead sulphide (PbS) is photoconductive to about 3 µm
wavelength. These detectors were the first practical
infrared detectors that have found a variety of
applications during the World War II. After this war,
R.J. Cashman in the USA found that other lead salts
(PbSe and PbTe) can be used as infrared detectors [102].
During and after the World War II, the IR detector
technology development was primarily driven by military
applications [79, 80]. In the former USSR, there were
developed systems for the army and navy. The progress
was gained in night vision devices mainly for military
applications (IR vidicons and other electro-optical
converters).
The first cooled bolometer was invented in the
1940s [103]. The bolometer was cooled at super-
conducting region using liquid helium. It was used the
superconducting transition point of tantalum at 4.4 K. A
later version was made with niobium nitride, which has a
transition at about 15 K and proper operation of the bolo-
meter at 14.3 K was achieved, where the cooling system
with liquid hydrogen was more easily available [104].
The significant post-World War II event was the
invention of room temperature pneumatic detectors. In
1946, Zahl and Golay published the paper on “Pneumatic
heat detector” [105] referred more to THz range. One
year later, Golay individually published the paper [106]
and patented the pneumatic detector referred to as the
Golay Cell. These inventions were the extension of
works made by Zahl and Golay in the 1930s. In 1938,
Zahl patented a “pneumatic cell detector”. One year later,
he and Golay patented a “System for detecting sources of
radiant energy” [10].
In 1959, Lawson and co-workers [107] proposed the
narrow band-gap mercury-cadmium-telluride (MCT)
(Hg1–xCdxTe) solid solution as the material with variable
band-gap to be applied for IR detectors with the
sensitivity wavelength changeable by chemical
composition “x”. This opened a new era in IR detector
technology (a little bit later in 1960 A.D. Sneider and
I.V. Gavrishak in Ukraine also grew Hg1–xCdxTe for IR
detectors [108]. The development of this material
inaugurated a revolutionary step of cooled IR detectors
broad development and presumably the nearest decade,
different vision systems with large focal plane arrays
with ultimate performance for IR spectra from ~1 µm to
~20 µm will be based on HgCdTe semiconductor for
both the Earth and Space location.
In the 1970s, development of a multi-element
photon detector linear array started, which formed the
basis of a real-time imaging process. Somewhat later,
computer technology made a widespread impact on
improvements in thermal imaging cameras, both on
image quality and speed of image frame rate. Still, early
imaging systems were large with very limited facilities
for display and temperature measurement [109]. The
computer image processing of thermograms resulted in
increased possibilities for quantitation and archiving of
images. Therefore, it increased the needs for the
standardization of the IR biomedical imaging [110, 111].
The other type of photon detector appeared after
publication in 1985 the paper [112]. In this research, they
first observed the intersubband optical transitions in
quantum wells (QWs). By 1987, the basic operating
principles for QW infrared photodetectors (now
frequently cold QWIPs) demonstrating sensitive infrared
detection were formulated. The QWIP arrays were first
used in Landsat Data Continuity Mission (2013) in IR
bands 10.8 and 12.0 µm [113].
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75
Photon detectors were dominating in IR
technologies up to the end of 20th century. The essential
drawback of photon detectors with ultimate performance
is the need of cryogenic cooling. This is necessary to
prevent the charge carrier thermal generation thus raising
the noise level.
The second revolution in thermal imaging began in
the recent decades of the 20th century after using the
results of investigations of small area and mass of
uncooled thermal detectors for military and civilian
applications. In 1978, Texas Instruments (USA) patented
uncooled ferroelectric infrared detectors using barium
strontium titanate (BST – BaSrTiO3). A little bit later, in
the 1982, another uncooled detector technology (resistive
microbolometer technology) was developed in
Honeywell (USA) under the direction of R. Andrew (see
[114]). Later it appeared after realization that the key to
bolometer performance was not the resistive material but
the structure’s thermal isolation. The chosen by
Honeywell material was vanadium oxide (VOx) which
has a high (~2…4% K–1) temperature coefficient of
resistance at room temperature and which was produced
using silicon technology. It was deposited on a micro-
bridge of Si3N4. In the mid of 1990s (SOFRADIR +
ULIS, France), a third technology, amorphous silicon (α-
Si), was also developed as compatible with fabrication in
a silicon foundry [102].
Now these detector and thermal camera
technologies are well mastered by several companies:
Raytheon, Teledyne, BAE Systems, DRS Technologies,
FLIR, L–3 Communications, Goodrich Corporation and
some others (USA), NEC, Mitsubishi (Japan), XenICs
(Belgium), SCD (Israel), INO (Canada) and so on.
Beginning from the late 1970s, progress in the
number of detectors in arrays, which revolutionized IR
technologies and made them much more cost-effective,
was primarily related with application of silicon readout
integrated circuits (ROICs). Assembling ROICs with
different types of detectors allowed building up the IR
focal plane arrays (FPAs), which now can contain in
single crystal array up to ~107 and more IR detectors.
Applications of these technologies made it possible to
discretize the process of image creation as well as its
processing by the instrumentality of linear and matrix
detector arrays from discrete elements. The arrays, both
IR and THz, used in vision systems have a set of
advantages over the systems with single detectors. It is
related, first of all, with the rate of getting image (and also
information capacity), space resolution, sensitivity and
visibility range.
The IR thermography (passive vision) is one of the
useful techniques that are used in non-destructive testing
of human body. Using infrared technology has many
advantages such as the fact that it is a contactless
method, non-destructive and fast technique, which does
not emit any harmful radiations [115]. Now the IR
thermography strives towards using equipment offering
high performance, acceptable accuracy and low cost
[116, 117].
In most cases imaging the objects or environment
that is related with detecting the IR or THz signals in the
spectral regions from their “invisible” parts can be
substantially different from images in the visible part of
spectra. This is caused by different radiation absorption,
transmission and reflection of the objects under
observation, their emissivity, background temperature,
etc., in various spectral ranges.
The history of IR technologies itself and in
application to various types of activity in different
periods is presented in a number of papers and books, too
(see, e.g., [118–125]).
4. Summary
The brief history of THz and IR science and technology,
for learning lessons by historical evolution is presented
and discussed identifying important (from the author’s
point of view) steps for their development. THz science
and technology, with account of the fact they are
showing a rapid growth, nowadays become widely
spread in their use despite the explosion of application
requirements especially in astrophysics, security,
biomedicine, etc. Still, THz science and technology need
a deeper and wider knowledge in many scientific and
technological aspects. Besides, in spite of expected
progress, the THz technologies are still delayed in a
widespread use because of a lack of reliable, cost
effective sensors, sources and instrumentations produced
on a large scale.
The situation is less concerned the IR technologies,
especially in the thermovision. A few decades ago, the IR
technologies were mainly the domain of military ones. In
recent two decades, due to widespread of thermal
uncooled detectors there were realized many IR
technology advances. Quick falling down costs of the IR
arrays and instrumentations are observed. Uncooled
thermal IR arrays have become an alternative to the
cooled ones and now are much more commonly applied
in many commercial, industrial, biomedical and military
IR applications.
Over the several recent decades, the IR detectors
successful development for large format small pixel
arrays and cameras on their base, lead to a significant
progress in monitoring of environmental pollution, sur-
veillance and reconnaissance, security imaging, IR ast-
ronomy, car driving, imaging in medical diagnostics, etc.
Although no real THz technologies mass-market
applications can be highlighted, because of these
technologies does not meet yet the users requirements
especially in easiness of use and costs, many of THz
applications have now are emerging and showing an
applicability in astrophysics, security, biomedicine, drug
and dry food inspection, nondestructive testing, etc. Still,
summarizing the development of THz technologies, one
can conclude that in spite of the great efforts in the past
decades, THz applications in general are still at an early
stage of development. Many other potential applications
are likely to be added in future.
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|
| id | nasplib_isofts_kiev_ua-123456789-215425 |
| institution | Digital Library of Periodicals of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| issn | 1560-8034 |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-03-23T18:51:15Z |
| publishDate | 2019 |
| publisher | Інститут фізики напівпровідників імені В.Є. Лашкарьова НАН України |
| record_format | dspace |
| spelling | Sizov, F.F. 2026-03-16T10:59:41Z 2019 Brief history of THz and IR technologies / F.F. Sizov // Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics. — 2019. — Т. 22, № 1. — С. 67-79. — Бібліогр.: 125 назв. — англ. 1560-8034 PACS: 87.50.U-, 87.64.km, 87.80.Dj, 87.85.Ox https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/215425 https://doi.org/10.15407/spqeo22.01.67 A brief history of terahertz (THz) and infrared (IR) science and technology, for learning lessons by historical evolution, is presented and discussed, identifying important (from the author’s point of view) steps for their development. en Інститут фізики напівпровідників імені В.Є. Лашкарьова НАН України Semiconductor Physics Quantum Electronics & Optoelectronics Optoelectronics and optoelectronic devices Brief history of THz and IR technologies Article published earlier |
| spellingShingle | Brief history of THz and IR technologies Sizov, F.F. Optoelectronics and optoelectronic devices |
| title | Brief history of THz and IR technologies |
| title_full | Brief history of THz and IR technologies |
| title_fullStr | Brief history of THz and IR technologies |
| title_full_unstemmed | Brief history of THz and IR technologies |
| title_short | Brief history of THz and IR technologies |
| title_sort | brief history of thz and ir technologies |
| topic | Optoelectronics and optoelectronic devices |
| topic_facet | Optoelectronics and optoelectronic devices |
| url | https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/215425 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT sizovff briefhistoryofthzandirtechnologies |