Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids in a Peri-Urban Protected Area of South-Central Chile
Peri-urban protected areas are continually invaded by alien species, and monitoring of these populations is important for their management. To evaluate the detectability of their performance, the use of scats and traps/cameras was compared for the monitoring of two canid species, one alien, the dome...
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| author | Zúñiga , A. H. Encina-Montoya , F. Jiménez, J. E. |
| author_facet | Zúñiga , A. H. Encina-Montoya , F. Jiménez, J. E. |
| author_institution_txt_mv | [
{
"author": "A. H. Zúñiga ",
"institution": "Departamento de Ciencias Agronómicas y de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile ",
"orcid": ""
},
{
"author": "F. Encina-Montoya ",
"institution": "Laboratorio de Ecología, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas y Biodiversidad, Universidad de Los Lagos, Osorno, Chile",
"orcid": ""
},
{
"author": "J. E. Jiménez",
"institution": "Department of Biological Science & Advanced Environment Institute, University of North Texas, TX, USA ",
"orcid": ""
}
] |
| author_sort | Zúñiga , A. H. |
| baseUrl_str | https://ojs.akademperiodyka.org.ua/index.php/Zoodiversity/oai |
| collection | OJS |
| container_end_page | |
| container_issue | 1 |
| container_start_page | |
| container_title | Zoodiversity (Vestnik Zoologii) |
| container_volume | 59 |
| datestamp_date | 2026-08-20T12:37:08Z |
| description | Peri-urban protected areas are continually invaded by alien species, and monitoring of these populations is important for their management. To evaluate the detectability of their performance, the use of scats and traps/cameras was compared for the monitoring of two canid species, one alien, the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) & one native, the chilla fox (Lycalopex griseus), in a protected area in central-southern Chile. This comparison was carried out for one year, and seasonal variations in the records were analysed. In the case of dogs, differences were observed between techniques, with the use of camera traps being the most successful. These differences were also observed between seasons. In contrast, no differences between techniques were observed for chilly foxes, and no seasonal variations were found. Differences were also observed in the coverage associated with the detection of both species. The ecological and behavioural implications of the results obtained are discussed, which are mainly related to competitor avoidance mechanisms in the chilla fox. We recommend the combined use of both techniques, as this allows us to minimise the biases introduced by each of them separately. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.15407/zoo2025.01.013 |
| first_indexed | 2025-07-17T12:37:05Z |
| format | Article |
| fulltext |
DOI 10.15407/zoo2025.01.13
UDC 599.742.1:502.74 (1-13+1-191.2:83)
COMPARISON OF TWO NON-INVASIVE TECHNIQUES
TO MONITORING TWO CANIDS IN A PERI-URBAN
PROTECTED AREA OF SOUTH-CENTRAL CHILE
A. H. Zúñiga 1,2,3*, F. Encina-Montoya 3 & J. E. Jiménez 4
1 Departamento de Ciencias Agronómicas y de Recursos Naturales,
Universidad de La Frontera, Temuco, Chile
2 Departamento de Gestión Agraria, Universidad de Santiago, Santiago, Chile
3 Laboratorio de Ecología, Departamento de Ciencias Biológicas y Biodiversidad,
Universidad de Los Lagos, Osorno, Chile
4 Núcleo de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco, Chile
5 Department of Biological Science & Advanced Environment Institute,
University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
* Corresponding author
E-mail: alfredo.zuniga@ufrontera.cl.
A. H. Zúñiga (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0504-7540)
F. Encina-Montoya (https://orcid.org/0000–0002–8756–8736)
J. E. Jiménez (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9816-1149)
urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:78FF523A-56F1-4A69-B014-9A3D3E03E26B
Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids in a Peri-
Urban Protected Area of South-Central Chile. Zúñiga, A. H., Encina-Montoya, F. &
Jiménez, J. E. — Peri-urban protected areas are continually invaded by alien species, and mon-
itoring of these populations is important for their management. To evaluate the detectability of
their performance, the use of scats and camera traps was compared for the monitoring of two
canid species, one alien, the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) & one native, the chilla fox (Ly-
calopex griseus), in a protected area in central-southern Chile. This comparison was carried out
for one year, and seasonal variations in the records were analysed. In the case of dogs, differences
were observed between techniques, with the use of camera traps being the most successful. These
differences were also observed between seasons. In contrast, no differences between techniques
were observed for chilla foxes, and no seasonal variations were found. Differences were also ob-
served in the coverage associated with the detection of both species. The ecological and behav-
ioural implications of the results obtained are discussed, which are mainly related to competitor
avoidance mechanisms by the chilla fox. We recommend the combined use of both techniques, as
this allows us to minimise the biases introduced by each of them separately.
Key words: anthropization, camera traps, detection, scats collection, seasonality.
Ecology Zoodiversity, 59(1):13–20, 2025
© Publisher Publishing House "Akademperiodyka" of the NAS of Ukraine, 2025. The article is
published under an open access license CC BY-NC-ND (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/)
ISSN 2707-725X. Zoodiversity. 2025. Vol. 59, No. 1
A. H. Zúñiga, F. Encina-Montoya & J. E. Jiménez
ISSN 2707-725X. Zoodiversity. 2025. Vol. 59, No. 1
14
Introduction
The loss of natural habitats is one of the main threats to biodiversity (Hanski, 2005), as it
limits the food and shelter available to species. This loss is mainly caused by anthropo-
genic land conversion (Poschold et al., 2005), which tends to increase over time (Zhao et
al., 2006; Echeverría et al., 2008). In this context, the establishment of protected areas is
one of the most important tools for the conservation of species, since they maintain the
expansion of natural habitats under the restrictions of land use change (Watson et al.,
2014), thus reducing direct threats to them. However, their effectiveness is in most cases
limited because they are small or poorly connected, which affects the dispersal of indi-
viduals of different species (Williams et al., 2022). This situation is important for the
control of invasive species, which constitute one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss
(Bellard et al., 2016). In this sense, the implementation of systematic monitoring of the
species present is of particular importance, as it allows the detection of population
changes over time (Durant et al., 2011) and the adoption of management plans accord-
ing to specific demographic scenarios (Gauthier & Wiken, 2003).
Among the invasive species that can affect biodiversity in protected areas is the
presence of dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), an invasive alien species that is widely dis-
tributed around the world (Boitani et al., 2017) and has a significant presence in pro-
tected areas. The impact of dogs on fauna has been reported in several ecosystems
(Vanak & Gompper, 2002; Silva-Rodríguez et al., 2010; Genovesi et al., 2012; Zapa-
ta-Ríos & Branch, 2016), which compromises the conservation status of the species
present. Among the species present in the forest ecosystems of southern Chile is the
chilla fox (Lycalopex griseus), a small canid (4 kg) widely distributed in the Chilean
territory, where occupies various diverse habitats (Iriarte & Jaksic 2012). However, it
has been affected by habitat transformations, with consequent spatial and trophic re-
sponses (Zúñiga et al., 2009; Zúñiga et al., 2021 a). These modifications have had ef-
fects on the occurrence of chilla foxes at a local scale, with implications for their con-
servation (Del Solar & Rau, 2004; Lucherini, 2016).
Monitoring through the use of scats allows obtaining information on the status of
carnivore populations at a low cost (Zúñiga et al., 2009; Zúñiga et al., 2022). However, this
technique may have a limited effect for the study of some species, which would be ex-
plained mainly by their differences in the use of space (Barea-Azcón et al., 2007; Gompper
et al., 2006). This situation limits its applicability in different contexts, as well as the subse-
quent interpretation of the data. In this way, considering the restriction of resources avail-
able to carry out wildlife monitoring, knowledge about the success in the implementation
of techniques at a local scale is relevant, to optimize efforts in the activities to be carried out.
In the present study, the effectiveness of two wildlife monitoring techniques, use of scats
and camera traps, for the detection of L. griseus and C. lupus was evaluated during one year
in a protected area in south-central Chile. The hypothesis about the differences in obtain-
ing records using the two techniques for both species was tested.
Material and Methods
Monumento Natural Cerro Ñielol (MNCÑ, 38o 43' S 72o 35' W) is a state protect-
ed area in south-central Chile, which is adjacent to the city of Temuco (Fig. 1). It
Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids...
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15
Fig. 1. Study area. The black circles indicate the locations of the cameras traps
Fig. 2. Scats collected in the study area. A — Domestic dog; B — Chilla fox
A B
Fig. 3. Records obtained by camera traps in the study area. A — Domestic dog;
B — Chilla fox
B A
has an area of 88 ha, and is located at 200 m above sea level. MNCÑ has a temper-
ate rainy oceanic type climate, with Mediterranean influence (Di Castri & Hajek,
1976). Its vegetation is mainly comprised of deciduous forest, represented pri-
marily by the roble-laurel-lingue formation (Oberdorfer, 1960), with a significant
proportion of non-native species (Hauenstein et al., 1988). The carnivorous fauna
present in this protected area includes the lesser grison (Galictis cuja) and the
guigna (Leopardus guigna), small carnivores of which there are few records (Zúñi-
ga, unpublished data).
A. H. Zúñiga, F. Encina-Montoya & J. E. Jiménez
ISSN 2707-725X. Zoodiversity. 2025. Vol. 59, No. 1
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From January to December 2022, camera traps, a non-invasive technique for
monitoring carnivorous mammals, were used (Kays & Slauson, 2008). These are
photographic devices that are activated when an animal passes in front of them, al-
lowing for its recording and subsequent identification. Five cameras (Bushnell Cor-
poration, Overland Park, KS, USA) were installed on trails, which were kept at an
average distance of 350 m from each other, allowing spatial independence, consider-
ing the home range of both species (Carbone & Gittleman, 2002). The number of
operational cameras made it possible to completely cover the surface of the protect-
ed area. For analytical purposes, a value of 30 min was considered between succes-
sive recordings, to allow for temporal independence (Chen et al., 2009).
The trails of the study area (4 km) were walked along during the same period every
two weeks, in the search of and collection scats of both species of canids. The samples
were recognized using morphological and color criteria (Muñoz-Pedreros, 2010; Fig.
2). These were collected and stored in paper bags. The alien canids have species-specif-
ic characteristic shapes of their scats that allow them to be distinguished from other
species (Chame, 2003). A two-way analysis of variance was carried out (Quinn & Ke-
ough, 2002), to evaluate seasonality and sampling technique used for each species. For
both the use of scats and camera traps, the number of records/15 days was used as an
analysis metric. To evaluate the effect of habitat on the techniques used to record the
species, canopy coverage, shrub vegetation, herbaceous vegetation and dead wood
were estimated at each recording point (camera traps and sites where each scats was
detected), considering a radius of 100 m2 (Zúñiga et al., 2021 b). These coverages were
compared based on the records obtained using non-dimensional metric scaling, based
on Euclidean distances (Clarke et al., 2014).
Results
With a total sampling effort of 1430 nights/camera-traps, 119 photographs were ob-
tained for the dog (12, 28, 53, 26 for summer, fall, winter and spring, respectively;
Fig. 3, A) and 15 for the chilla fox (5 for fall, winter and spring, respectively; Fig. 3, B).
For scats, 72 were collected for the dog (22, 18, 9, 23 for summer, autumn, winter and
spring, respectively), and 66 for the chilla fox (10, 13, 14, 29 for the same periods).
Fig. 4. Average numbers of records obtained for both sampling techniques on chil-
la fox and domestic dog across the seasons studied. The bars indicate the standard
deviation for each period
Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids...
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When comparing each species, the detection ability in the use of camera traps and
scats showed a differed trend. For the dog, a significant difference between techniques were
obtained (F = 29.32, p < 0.0001). The photographic records being the one with the highest
recording frequency (Fig. 4), which happened across all the seasons (F = 3.38, p = 0.018).
While an increase in the photographs towards the spring was evident, the scats decreased
in this same period. The interaction between the two variables was significant (F = 6.98,
p = 0.001). In contrast, no differences were observed between techniques for the chilla fox
(F = 0.49, p = 0.230); the two techniques showed the same seasonal trend (F = 0.79, p =
0.074), and no interaction between these variables were found (F = 0.09, p = 0.083). Regard-
ing the effect of habitat cover on the detection of species, an interaction of the canopy on
the detection of dogs by cameras was obtained, while dog scats were associated to herba-
ceous cover (Fig. 5). The camera records of foxes had a low association with dead wood, just
as their scats were associated to herbaceous and shrub cover. When the coverage among the
recording points (scats and cameras) was compared, significant differences were observed
only in the herbaceous coverage (Mann-Whitney test, U = 29, p < 0.001, mean sites with
cameras: 4.88% cover; mean sites with scats: 13.50% cover) and canopy coverage (U = 0,
p < 0.001, mean sites with cameras: 74.60% cover; mean sites with scats: 14.71% cover).
Discussion
The differences in the frequencies of records obtained for both species could be explained
first of all by their relative abundances, being the domestic dogs a higher. This fact has
been reported in various cities throughout Chile (Ibarra et al., 2006; Acosta-Jamett et al.,
2010; Schüttler & Jiménez, 2022; Silva-Rodríguez et al., 2023), which makes its incursion
Fig. 5. Non-metric dimensional scaling based on the coverage of the sites
where domestic dogs and chilla foxes were recorded
A. H. Zúñiga, F. Encina-Montoya & J. E. Jiménez
ISSN 2707-725X. Zoodiversity. 2025. Vol. 59, No. 1
18
into protected areas possible, which is consistent with other studies (Mella-Méndez et al.,
2019). In contrast, the chilla fox has low densities (Jiménez, 1993; Zurita et al., 2024),
which was refl ected in its low detection. In addition, the interference from dogs on the
foxes would result in their avoidance behaviors (Silva-Rodríguez et al., 2010; Gálvez et
al., 2021; Malhotra et al., 2021), and consequently minimizing their occupation at the
local scale. Th is scenario was also refl ected by the fact that most of the foxes’ scats were
detected on marginal sites of this protected area (Zúñiga et al., 2022), which in turn may
limit the probabilities of detection by the cameras.
Th e strong seasonal eff ect on dog detection was unexpected by been due to its genera-
lism in the use of space (Boitani et al., 2017). Th is scenario is consistent with an increase
in the occurrence of local prey in their diet (Zúñiga, unpublished data). For chilla fox, al-
though part of its occupancy dynamics were associated with its feeding habits (Zúñiga et
al., 2008), these have not been refl ected in this study area. Th is suggests that the chilla
might change the diet (Zúñiga et al., 2022).Th is should be studied further in the future.
Th e relationship between canopy cover and the detection of dogs by cameras diff ers
from what was observed in previous reports, where dogs avoid forest patches (Dechner
et al., 2018). Th is suggests that in the study area the use of forest by dogs would be tran-
sitory, which would allow individuals to move to the most open sites. Th e lack of associ-
ation of coverage with camera detections for dogs may be biased. Because cameras were
only installed under in sites with high canopy coverage. We did this to avoid the cameras
to be stolen by people that visit the area (Zúñiga et al., unpublished data). Despite his
limitation, and considering the fox avoidance in areas frequented by dogs, we should
caution on the sampling design that should be improved in future studies. On the other
hand, the association of scats with grasses and shrubs is consistent with the behavior of
both canids to visit open habitats (Fox & Cohen, 1978; Barja et al., 2001).
In conclusion, it was found that both species of canids respond diff erently to moni-
toring techniques. Th e presence of the chilla fox, the native species of interest, was under-
represented when monitored with cameras, which we believe it was better refl ected by
their scats. We would suggest to combine both techniques in future monitoring plans
(Roda et al., 2022), which should be complementary for assessing the activity/relative
abundance of these canids. We would also suggest controlling the dogs in the protected
area. Th is would alleviate the impact on the local biodiversity and should be refl ected in
the expected use of space by the chilla fox.
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Received 12 October 2024
Accepted 14 February 2025
|
| id | oai:ojs.akademperiodyka.org.ua:article-666 |
| institution | Zoodiversity |
| issn | 2707-7268 |
| keywords_txt_mv | |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-08-21T01:01:45Z |
| publishDate | 2024 |
| publisher | Publishing House "Akademperiodyka" of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| record_format | ojs |
| resource_txt_mv | ojsakademperiodykaorgua/f9/33deae70e42b0d0a17dee3eecc915cf9.pdf |
| spelling | oai:ojs.akademperiodyka.org.ua:article-6662026-08-20T12:37:08Z Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids in a Peri-Urban Protected Area of South-Central Chile Zúñiga , A. H. Encina-Montoya , F. Jiménez, J. E. anthropization camera traps detection scats collection seasonality Peri-urban protected areas are continually invaded by alien species, and monitoring of these populations is important for their management. To evaluate the detectability of their performance, the use of scats and traps/cameras was compared for the monitoring of two canid species, one alien, the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris) &amp; one native, the chilla fox (Lycalopex griseus), in a protected area in central-southern Chile. This comparison was carried out for one year, and seasonal variations in the records were analysed. In the case of dogs, differences were observed between techniques, with the use of camera traps being the most successful. These differences were also observed between seasons. In contrast, no differences between techniques were observed for chilly foxes, and no seasonal variations were found. Differences were also observed in the coverage associated with the detection of both species. The ecological and behavioural implications of the results obtained are discussed, which are mainly related to competitor avoidance mechanisms in the chilla fox. We recommend the combined use of both techniques, as this allows us to minimise the biases introduced by each of them separately. Publishing House "Akademperiodyka" of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine 2024-12-17 Article Article application/pdf https://ojs.akademperiodyka.org.ua/index.php/Zoodiversity/article/view/666 10.15407/zoo2025.01.013 Zoodiversity; Vol. 59 No. 1 (2025): Zoodiversity Zoodiversity (Vestnik Zoologii); Том 59 № 1 (2025): Zoodiversity 2707-7268 2707-725X 10.15407/zoo2025.01 en https://ojs.akademperiodyka.org.ua/index.php/Zoodiversity/article/view/666/309 Copyright (c) 2024 alfredo zúñiga, Jaime Jiménez, Francisco Encina |
| spellingShingle | Zúñiga , A. H. Encina-Montoya , F. Jiménez, J. E. Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids in a Peri-Urban Protected Area of South-Central Chile |
| title | Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids in a Peri-Urban Protected Area of South-Central Chile |
| title_full | Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids in a Peri-Urban Protected Area of South-Central Chile |
| title_fullStr | Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids in a Peri-Urban Protected Area of South-Central Chile |
| title_full_unstemmed | Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids in a Peri-Urban Protected Area of South-Central Chile |
| title_short | Comparison of Two Non-Invasive Techniques to Monitoring Two Canids in a Peri-Urban Protected Area of South-Central Chile |
| title_sort | comparison of two non-invasive techniques to monitoring two canids in a peri-urban protected area of south-central chile |
| topic_facet | anthropization camera traps detection scats collection seasonality |
| url | https://ojs.akademperiodyka.org.ua/index.php/Zoodiversity/article/view/666 |
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