BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG(Review)
Dedication: To Casey and Calley Means, fearless science and health advocates, for their inspiring work in redefining wellness and empowering individuals to take charge of their metabolic destinies.   Micro-/nanoplastics represent a ubiquitous environmental contaminant with potential adv...
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| Дата: | 2025 |
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| Автори: | , , , , |
| Формат: | Стаття |
| Мова: | Англійська |
| Опубліковано: |
V.I.Vernadsky Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry
2025
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| Назва журналу: | Ukrainian Chemistry Journal |
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Репозитарії
Ukrainian Chemistry Journal| _version_ | 1871466137071386624 |
|---|---|
| author | Han, Jianlin Wzorek, Alicja Klika, Karel Ono, Taizo Soloshonok, Vadim |
| author_facet | Han, Jianlin Wzorek, Alicja Klika, Karel Ono, Taizo Soloshonok, Vadim |
| author_institution_txt_mv | [
{
"author": "Jianlin Han",
"institution": "Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China"
},
{
"author": "Alicja Wzorek",
"institution": "Institute of Chemistry, Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, Uniwersytecka 7, 25-406 Kielce, Poland"
},
{
"author": "Karel Klika",
"institution": "Molecular Structure Analysis, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), ImNeuenheimer Feld 280, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany"
},
{
"author": "Taizo Ono",
"institution": "National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 463-8560, Nagoya, Japan"
},
{
"author": "Vadim Soloshonok",
"institution": "University of Basque Country"
}
] |
| author_sort | Han, Jianlin |
| baseUrl_str | https://ucj.org.ua/index.php/journal/oai |
| collection | OJS |
| datestamp_date | 2026-07-22T08:23:56Z |
| description | Dedication: To Casey and Calley Means, fearless science and health advocates, for their inspiring work in redefining wellness and empowering individuals to take charge of their metabolic destinies.
 
Micro-/nanoplastics represent a ubiquitous environmental contaminant with potential adverse effects across all living organisms. Ongoing research consistently reveals new and expands upon existing concerns regarding plastic exposure. Notably, emerging evidence suggests a link between plastic exposure and premature cognitive decline in older adults, potentially contributing to the onset or exacerbation of neurodegenerative diseases associated with dementia. Furthermore, endocrine-disrupting chemicals derived from plastics have been implicated in hormonal imbalances, potentially resulting in the masculinization of female development and the feminization of male development. If unmitigated, these impacts could precipitate a substantial and unforeseen environmental health crisis. This Perspective employs a chemistry-based approach to elucidate plastic-related health issues and introduces the concept of bioavailable plastic, i.e. plastic particles smaller than 2.5 μm capable of biological barrier penetration. We highlight lipophilicity as the key physicochemical property responsible for the uptake of these particles within organisms particularly their accumulation in adipose tissues, including the brain. Furthermore, we propose a solvation-assisted desorption mechanism whereby oligomeric molecules released from plastics in fatty tissues generate mono- and dicarboxylic acids that mimic endogenous fatty acids. These exogenous fatty acids can integrate into phospholipid and glycolipid biosynthesis becoming components of cell membranes and myelin sheaths. These considerations should stimulate research aimed at neurological health protection in an increasingly plastic-laden environment, though the broader implications of this integration are of significant concern. Mechanistic understanding of the link between bioavailable plastic exposure and central nervous system disorders is crucial for informing transformative policy changes and preventive measures to safeguard future generations’ health. To empower readers with actionable strategies for reducing plastic exposure, we offer several recommendations. Notably, limiting the consumption of fatty animal products, especially pork fat (salo) is advised. While salo is a culturally significant food, it appears to be a major reservoir for plastic particles, particularly those smaller than 200 nm, i.e. bioavailable plastic. These nanoparticles, due to their ability to traverse biological barriers in humans, pose a considerable risk. This Perspective seeks to underscore the critical need for comprehensive research into the long-term health effects of microplastics highlighting their pervasive presence and potential hidden dangers. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.33609/2708-129X.91.5.2025.33-62 |
| first_indexed | 2025-09-26T01:42:09Z |
| format | Article |
| fulltext |
33
UDC 546.26-162: 541.13:549.21 doi: 10.33609/2708-129X.91.5.2025.33-62
BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD
TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.
Jianlin Han1, Alicja Wzorek2, Karel D. Klika3, Taizo Ono4, Vadim A. Soloshonok5,6*
1 Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College
of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China;
2 Institute of Chemistry, Jan Kochanowski University in Kielce, Uniwersytecka 7, 25–406 Kielce,
Poland
3 Research and Development Center, Archer Daniels Midland, 1001 N Brush College Rd., Decatur,
IL 62521, USA;
4 National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 2266–98, Anagahora,
Shimoshidami, Moriyama-ku, Nagoya, 463–8560, Japan;
5 Department of Organic Chemistry I, Faculty of Chemistry, University of the Basque Country
UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel Lardizábal 3, 20018 San Sebastián, Spain;
6 IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, María Díaz de Haro 3, Plaza Bizkaia, 48013
Bilbao, Spain
email: vadimsoloshonok@gmail.com
Dedication: To Casey and Calley Means, fearless science and health advocates, for their inspir-
ing work in redefining wellness and empowering individuals to take charge of their metabolic
destinies.
Micro-/nanoplastics represent a ubiquitous environmental contaminant with potential
adverse effects across all living organisms. Ongoing research consistently reveals new and
expands upon existing concerns regarding plastic exposure. Notably, emerging evidence
suggests a link between plastic exposure and premature cognitive decline in older adults,
potentially contributing to the onset or exacerbation of neurodegenerative diseases associat-
ed with dementia. Furthermore, endocrine-disrupting chemicals derived from plastics have
been implicated in hormonal imbalances, potentially resulting in the masculinization of fe-
male development and the feminization of male development. If unmitigated, these impacts
could precipitate a substantial and unforeseen environmental health crisis. This Perspective
employs a chemistry-based approach to elucidate plastic-related health issues and introduces
the concept of bioavailable plastic, i.e. plastic particles smaller than 2.5 μm capable of bio-
logical barrier penetration. We highlight lipophilicity as the key physicochemical property
responsible for the uptake of these particles within organisms particularly their accumula-
tion in adipose tissues, including the brain. Furthermore, we propose a solvation-assisted
34 ISSN 2708-129X. Укр. хім. журн., 2025
BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
desorption mechanism whereby oligomeric molecules released from plastics in fatty tissues
generate mono- and dicarboxylic acids that mimic endogenous fatty acids. These exogenous
fatty acids can integrate into phospholipid and glycolipid biosynthesis becoming components
of cell membranes and myelin sheaths. These considerations should stimulate research aimed
at neurological health protection in an increasingly plastic-laden environment, though the
broader implications of this integration are of significant concern. Mechanistic understand-
ing of the link between bioavailable plastic exposure and central nervous system disorders is
crucial for informing transformative policy changes and preventive measures to safeguard
future generations’ health. To empower readers with actionable strategies for reducing plastic
exposure, we offer several recommendations. Notably, limiting the consumption of fatty ani-
mal products, especially pork fat (salo) is advised. While salo is a culturally significant food,
it appears to be a major reservoir for plastic particles, particularly those smaller than 200 nm,
i.e. bioavailable plastic. These nanoparticles, due to their ability to traverse biological barriers
in humans, pose a considerable risk. This Perspective seeks to underscore the critical need for
comprehensive research into the long-term health effects of microplastics highlighting their
pervasive presence and potential hidden dangers.
Key words: Bioavailable Plastic, Micro-/Nanoplastics, Environmental Contaminants,
Environmental Health Crisis Systemic Pollution, Particle Size Distribution, Biological Bar-
rier Penetration, Cognitive Decline, Neurotoxicity, Plastic Additives, Bisphenols, Phthalates,
Hormonal Disruption, Endocrine System, Lipophilicity, Lipid-Mediated Transport, Adipose
Tissue Accumulation, Salo (Ukrainian Cured Fat), Solvation-Assisted Desorption, Endoge-
nous/Exogenous Fatty Acids.
INTRODUCTION. The widespread adop-
tion of synthetic polymers, including plastics
and fibers, since the 1950’s has fundamentally
altered material consumption patterns [1–3].
While offering demonstrable advantages in
terms of cost and functional longevity, the
rapid escalation of plastic production – from
1.5 million metric tons in 1950 to 413.8 million
metric tons in 2023 with projected increases to
590 million metric tons by 2050 – presents a
critical environmental challenge [4]. The so
cietal perception of plastics as synonymous
with hygiene and sterility has obscured the
potential for deleterious effects on ecosystems
and human health. Emerging evidence sug-
gests that the accumulation of plastic debris,
particularly micro- and nanoplastics, may con-
tribute to significant ecological disruption and
biological toxicity, potentially impacting the
viability of diverse life forms [5–10].
Since approximately 2020, the scientific
discourse has increasingly focused on the per-
vasive dispersion of microplastics throughout
the Earth’s systems, mirroring historical ob-
servations of microbial ubiquity. Microplastic
particles have been quantified across a range
of environmental compartments, from the
cryosphere (polar regions) [11–14] and litho
sphere (deep-sea trenches, mountain peaks)
[15, 16] to the atmosphere (cloud formations)
35https://ucj.org.ua
Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel D. Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim A. Soloshonok UCJ № 5 / Vol. 91
[17] and hydrosphere (oceanic sediments)
[18–21]. Furthermore, evidence of bioaccumu-
lation in diverse organisms, including human
populations, highlights systemic exposure via
respiratory [22], digestive [23], and cutaneous
(dermal absorption) routes [24].
Recent studies have revealed an alarming
amount of data depicting the pervasive pre
sence of microplastics and their significant
impact on the environment and human health
[25–29]. However, the actual situation is likely
far worse due to limitations in current analyti-
cal and capture methods [30]. For example, re-
search indicates that the amount of microplas-
tics in the environment is vastly underesti-
mated. Specifically, data show that when nets
with a 100 μm mesh are used, the microplastic
particle numbers are 2.5 times and 10 times
greater than nets with 333 and 500 μm meshes,
respectively, are used,. Moreover, it is estima
ted that microplastic particle numbers might
possibly exceed 3,700 particles/mm3 when nets
with a 1 μm mesh size are employed [31]. Fur-
themore, thousands of additives are utilized to
enhance the durability, flexibility, color, flame
retardancy, and/or strength of plastics. These
additives, predominantly aromatic organic
compounds, often are only bound to superfi-
cial regulation by authorities. As plastics de-
grade, these chemicals are released into the
environment and permeate various forms of
life [32–34]. Unfortunately, a similar scenar-
io is observed with the regulation of numer-
ous chemical additives in the food industry.
Given the prolonged lifespan of various plas-
tics, anywhere from 20–1,000 years, it seems
that we are merely at the nascent stages of the
microplastic pandemic [35].
Despite the surge in research activity in the
field of microplastics, the novelty of the sub-
ject matter has resulted in a lack of systema
tic approaches leaving critical areas of impact
unaddressed. While the scientific community
is actively exploring the pervasive presence
and consequences of microplastics, certain key
aspects remain overlooked due to the nascent
stage of the research. As a result, there is an
urgent need for a more comprehensive and
organized framework to ensure that all rele-
vant environmental and health implications
are thoroughly investigated and understood. In
this Perspective we address the ongoing debate
and lack of consensus regarding the size classi-
fication of microplastics and the end-products
of their degradation [36]. Importantly, we in-
troduce the concept of bioavailable plastic,
emphasizing their impact on living organisms,
including humans. This approach prioritizes
understanding the interactions between mi-
croplastics and biological systems, highlight-
ing the significance of their effects on health
and the environment. In our view, the ability of
microplastics to penetrate biological barriers is
of paramount concern. Additionally, we delve
into the often underdiscussed and occasional-
ly misrepresented issue of the physicochemi-
cal properties of microplastics and their end-
products. Understanding these properties will
enable us to map the preferential distribution
and accumulation of microplastics within the
body and guide future research efforts. Con-
sidering the limited effectiveness of govern-
mental regulation on microplastics, we provide
practical recommendations throughout this
discussion. Our aim is to empower readers to
take proactive steps in managing their expo-
sure to microplastics, fostering a sense of per-
sonal agency and responsibility in addressing
this pressing issue.
36 ISSN 2708-129X. Укр. хім. журн., 2025
BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Plastic degradation and end-products.
The major types of plastics (Fig. 1) – poly
ethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), polyure-
thane (PUR), and polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) – account for more than 80% of the
plastic market [37]. These materials are widely
used in various applications, including packag-
ing, construction materials, automobiles, and
consumer goods, making them the dominant
types of plastics in the markets. PUR and PET
can undergo hydrolysis under specific envi-
ronmental conditions (either slightly basic or
slightly acidic) and therefore they are not ty
pically considered the primary culprits in dis-
cussions on the “plastic apocalypse” [38, 39].
Nonetheless, both PUR and PET still contri
bute to plastic pollution and environmental
issues making it essential to consider their im-
pact and seek sustainable alternatives whenever
possible. In sharp contrast, PE, PP, PVC, and
PS are chemically inert and can persist in envi-
ronmental conditions for a very long time. The
decomposition of this group of plastics, which
contribute approximately 70% of worldwide
pollution, is a highly complex and multifaceted
process [40].
Fig. 1 Structure and properties of the major types of plastics collectively accounting
for more than 80% of the global plastic market.
37https://ucj.org.ua
Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel D. Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim A. Soloshonok UCJ № 5 / Vol. 91
One of the most common degradation pro-
cesses is mechanical degradation. This path-
way involves the physical breakdown of plastic
materials into smaller fragments through abra-
sion, cutting, or other physical forces [41–43].
Another general process is oxidative degrada-
tion, which occurs when plastics are exposed
to oxygen, often accelerated by heat [44, 45]
or UV radiation [46 47]. Other degradation
routes include photodegradation, where expo-
sure to UV radiation from sunlight causes the
breakdown of plastic polymers [48]; hydroly
tic degradation, which involves the chemical
breakdown of polyester or polyamide plastics
in the presence of water or moisture [49]; and
biodegradation by microorganisms such as
bacteria and fungi, which break down certain
types of plastics through enzymatic processes,
converting them into simpler compounds [50].
Thermal degradation can also be considered as
a separate category since excessive tempera-
tures alone can cause the breakdown of plastic
polymers through pyrolysis [51].
These classifications reflect either the initial
step of the degradation process (e.g., mecha
nical) or its chemical nature (e.g., oxidation).
However, from a chemical standpoint, the pro-
cesses are similar, involving the generation of
free radicals followed by a cascade of stabiliza-
tion reactions. Even mechanical degradation,
such as tearing and ripping, involves homolytic
cleavage of C–C bonds in the polymer chains,
leading to the formation of free radicals. From
this perspective, there is no significant diffe
rence between mechanical, UV light, or ther-
mal degradation routes.
Although a fundamental distinction can be
made between abiotic and biotic degradation,
this classification is not particularly useful
however from a biotoxicity standpoint as biotic
degradation only plays a relatively minor role
in the overall degradation of plastics, account-
ing for less than 1% of plastic degradation.
A more meaningful distinction is between pro-
cesses that affect the bulk of plastic particles
and those that primarily impact the surface.
Mechanical processes like tensile, compressive,
and shear stresses, creep, fatigue, impact, and
delamination affect the entire or a significantly
large part of the plastic body [52]. In contrast,
other mechanical processes such as abrasion
and erosion, as well as the previously men-
tioned pathways, occur primarily on the first
layer of molecules exposed on the surface [53].
From a statistical perspective, one can expect
that at the onset of the decomposition pro-
cess, bulk-related degradation processes con-
stitute the major means for degradation, but
as decomposition progresses, surface-related
processes are likely to take over as the primary
process [54]. Furthermore, as the particles be-
come smaller, the rate of degradation is expect-
ed to increase. However, these considerations
only hold true if the degradation occurs un-
der constant conditions conducive to surface
processes. For example, PVC can undergo de
hydrochlorination, i.e. the elimination of HCl,
and typically occurs when PVC is exposed to
heat, basic conditions, or UV radiation leading
to the release of HCl and formation of dou-
ble bonds in the polymer chain [55]. When
exposed to UV light, these double bonds can
be easily oxidized, resulting in rapid degrada-
tion. However, in reality, due to its relatively
high density, PVC often settles at the bottom
of aquatic environments or becomes otherwise
shielded from UV light and oxygen, allowing
it to remain intact for millennia. Understand-
ing these various routes of plastic degrada-
tion helps in developing strategies to manage
38 ISSN 2708-129X. Укр. хім. журн., 2025
BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
plastic waste and mitigate its environmental
impact [56].
It should be noted that the degradation of
plastics via the various environmental pro-
cesses discussed above occur only very slowly,
decreasing the size of the plastic particles by
103 µm/year depending on the plastic type [57]
and the environmental conditions [58] yield-
ing particles that vary in size [59] and shape
[60]. A recent study showed that oxidation
occurs at up to 600 µm depth from the sur-
face layer of plastic [61]. Thus, the surface of
plastics in the environment contains oxidized,
less hydrophobic moieties in varying amounts,
which facilitates the adsorption of environ-
mental compounds [61–63]. Consequently, a
plethora of different compounds can be pro-
duced from plastic waste with highly diverse
structures and thus constitutes one of the ma-
jor challenges in the characterization of plas-
tics’ impact on health. While the end-products
of plastic degradation are a complex mixture
of oxidized hydrocarbons, among them as sig-
nificant components are the corresponding
carboxylic acids and α,ω-dicarboxylic acids
which are capable of mimicking endogenous
fatty acids.
Bioavailable plastic.
The complex nature of plastic pollution
stems from its variable physicochemical prop-
erties as well as the size and shape of the par-
ticles. Addressing this problem requires multi-
disciplinary knowledge and expertise from
researchers to develop standardized approach-
es for studying it. One of the key factors that
determines the detrimental effect of plastics on
human health is particle size.
The field of micro- and nanoplastics re-
search, reflecting its nascent stage, is charac-
terized by a lack of standardization in method-
ologies, data collection, and terminology. This
variability extends to particle size classification
with microplastic upper limits ranging from
5 to 500 μm and lower limits inconsistently
defined from no lower bound to thresholds
of 0.1, 1, 20, or 63 μm. The most commonly
used microplastic size range is approximately
1 to 5,000 μm [62, 64–70]. While nanoplastic
classification also varies, discrepancies are less
pronounced, likely due to the field’s relative
immaturity. Typically, nanoplastics are defined
as particles up to 1 μm, with either no low-
er limit or a range of 1 to 1,000 nm [71, 72].
However, this definition is problematic as the
lower bounds would then include molecules
like hexane (~1 nm) and long-chain fatty acids
(~3.39 nm), which are clearly within the mo-
lecular, rather than particulate, size range.
Although precise particle size classification
remains a relevant issue, we contend that, from
a human health perspective, the critical cha
racteristic is a particle’s capacity for systemic
intrusion into an organism. In this respect, it is
important to note the already established mark-
er PM2.5 [73–75] which refers to fine particu-
late matter with a diameter of 2.5 μm or smaller.
These tiny particles are a major component of
air pollution and can be composed of various
substances, including dust, dirt, soot, smoke,
and plastics. Due to their small size, PM2.5
particles can penetrate deep into the respirato-
ry system, reaching the lungs and even entering
the bloodstream. Exposure to PM2.5 has been
linked to a range of adverse health effects, in-
cluding respiratory and cardiovascular diseases
as well as premature death [76]. The sources of
PM2.5 pollution can be either natural, such as
wildfires and dust storms, or anthropogenic,
such as vehicle emissions, industrial process-
39https://ucj.org.ua
Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel D. Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim A. Soloshonok UCJ № 5 / Vol. 91
es, construction activities, and plastic pollu-
tion [77]. Therefore, we propose defining bi-
oavailable plastic as plastic particles ≤ 2.5 μm
which are capable of systemic translocation fol-
lowing ingestion, inhalation, or dermal absorp-
tion. Particles of this size can traverse critical
biological barriers, including the gut [78], skin
[79], blood–retinal [80], ovarian [81], placen-
tal [82], blood–testis [83], blood–cerebrospinal
fluid [84, 85], and blood–brain (BBB) barriers
[84–86]. Of particular concern are particles
< 200 nm which exhibit enhanced permeabili-
ty across the BBB, potentially leading to signi
ficant neurological impacts. Bioavailable plastic
thus pose a range of potential health problems
due to its capacity to penetrate biological bar-
riers and access internal tissues [87]. Anticipa
ted health issues stem from its physicochemical
properties, potential for bioaccumulation, and
interactions with cellular processes. Antici-
pated health problems include inflammatory
responses as bioavailable plastic can trigger in-
flammation in various tissues due to its foreign
nature. Chronic inflammation may lead to tis-
sue damage and contribute to the development
of chronic diseases. Additionally, these parti-
cles can induce oxidative stress leading to the
production of reactive oxygen species that can
damage cellular components including DNA,
lipids, and proteins.
Bioavailable plastic can also disrupt cel-
lular processes by interfering with signaling
pathways, enzyme activity, and other essential
functions, potentially resulting in cellular dys-
function and various diseases. The presence
of bioavailable plastic in an organism can mo
dulate the immune system potentially causing
immunosuppression or autoimmune respons-
es, increasing susceptibility to infections, or
contributing to autoimmune diseases.
Endocrine disruption is another concern
as certain chemicals incorporated into plastic,
such as phthalates and bisphenols, are known
endocrine disruptors. Bioavailable plastic can
act as carriers for these chemicals, enhancing
their delivery to internal organs and disrupting
hormonal balance.
Neurological impacts are potentially sig-
nificant as particles smaller than 200 nm can
cross the BBB leading to neuroinflammation,
neuronal damage, and cognitive dysfunction.
Cardiovascular effects are also possible, as par-
ticles entering the bloodstream can induce vas-
cular inflammation and other cardiovascular
problems.
Reproductive toxicity is a concern because
bioavailable plastic can accumulate in repro-
ductive organs, potentially affecting fertility
and reproductive development. Disruption
of hormonal balance also contributes to re-
productive toxicity. Additionally, barriers that
protect genetic information, such as the testic-
ular and ovarian barriers, can be compromised
by bioavailable plastic which can penetrate and
potentially harm genetic material within re-
productive cells.
Lastly, the persistence of bioavailable plastic
in the body can lead to bioaccumulation and
chronic toxicity, with long-term exposure po-
tentially resulting in the gradual development
of chronic diseases.
Physicochemical properties of plastics, lipo-
philicity.
Characterizing the physicochemical pro
perties of plastics presents a complex and mul-
tifaceted challenge. This complexity arises from
the significant dependence of these properties
on monomer chemical structure, polymeriza-
tion methods, and the sample’s size and age.
40 ISSN 2708-129X. Укр. хім. журн., 2025
BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
The following properties are commonly con-
sidered: chemical structure, density, strength,
flexibility, heat resistance, and transparency.
When plastic is reduced to nanoscale dimen-
sions, its properties can undergo significant
changes due to quantum and surface effects,
both of which become increasingly prominent
at such scales [88]. These nanoscale transfor-
mations can affect all of the aforementioned
physicochemical properties of plastics [89].
However, one property remains constant: the
fundamental chemical structure dictated by
the parent monomer. For the primary contrib-
utors to plastic pollution – PE, PP, PVC, and
PS – both the monomers and their polymeric
forms retain a key characteristic shared by all
aliphatic compounds: hydrophobicity or lipo-
philicity. The lipophilicity of aliphatic plastics,
a property rooted in their chemical structure,
is a pivotal yet often overlooked characteristic
in the literature. From a chemistry standpoint,
this intrinsic feature is arguably the most crit-
ical aspect that defines plastics, transcending
particle size and shape. Lipophilicity, or the
tendency of these plastics to interact with and
dissolve in nonpolar, lipid-like environments,
is not merely a mundane trait – it provides
both explanatory and predictive power to un-
derstand and anticipate the behavior of plastics
across a wide range of contexts.
For instance, hydrophobic deep eutectic sol-
vents (HDESs, Fig. 2) have been demonstrat-
ed to be effective agents for the liquid–liquid
extraction of PS particles ranging from 100
to 1,000 nm in size, from both freshwater and
brine. HDES systems formulated with 1:2 or
1:1 molar ratios of tetrabutylammonium bro-
mide and decanoic acid, or tetraoctylammoni-
um bromide and decanoic acid, have achieved
remarkable efficiency with nearly complete
(98.4%) removal of nanoplastics in a single ex-
traction step [90].
Fig. 2. Structures of HDES systems used for the extraction of PS nanoparticles.
The study underscores that aliphatic plastics
possess strong lipophilic properties, a funda-
mental trait rooted in their chemical structure.
This property enables their preferential interac-
tion with nonpolar, lipid-like environments over
polar ones like water. The efficient extraction of
41https://ucj.org.ua
Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel D. Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim A. Soloshonok UCJ № 5 / Vol. 91
PS particles from water by HDESs highlights the
practical implications of this lipophilicity, which
explains the bioaccumulation of plastics in li-
pid-rich tissues like adipose tissue in humans
and animals. Such an understanding advances
theoretical insights into the behavior of plastics
and paves the way for strategies to mitigate their
environmental and health impacts.
The lipophilicity of aliphatic plastics also
influences their behavior as carriers of pollut-
ants, affecting their interactions with organic
matter, membranes, and lipids. This explains
their persistence and degradation patterns in
aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems where their
hydrophobic nature favors affinities with li-
pid-rich organisms over polar environments.
By emphasizing lipophilicity as a defining
property, researchers can predict the ecologi-
cal footprint and bioaccumulative potential of
plastics, offering critical insights for environ-
mental policies and plastic pollution mitiga-
tion.
Plastic bioaccumulation in adipose tissue –
documented in both humans and animals – is
a pressing concern [91–95]. Adipose tissue,
being lipid-rich, readily attracts hydrophobic
substances like microplastics, nanoplastics,
and chemical additives such as bisphenols and
phthalates. These compounds, often classified
as obesogens [96], disrupt endocrine function
and metabolism, contributing to weight gain
and storage disorders. Their accumulation is
linked to oxidative stress, chronic inflamma-
tion, and even accelerated aging, with addi-
tional risks for morbidities such as insulin re-
sistance, cardiovascular diseases, and impaired
cellular repair mechanisms. These disruptions
can affect energy storage and utilization in
organisms, further compromising health and
survival.
The persistence of plastics in adipose tissue
highlights their role as reservoirs for toxic sub-
stances that degrade slowly, releasing pollut-
ants over time. This raises concerns about their
long-term health impacts on individual organ-
isms and ecosystems. Addressing these risks is
critical to mitigating the broader implications
of plastic pollution.
Foods rich in fatty tissue, like salo, a cured
pork fat delicacy central to some Eastern Eu-
ropean diets, may pose similar risks due to the
bioaccumulation of hydrophobic pollutants.
Fatty parts of animals and fish act as reservoirs
for microplastics, persistent organic pollutants
(POPs), and heavy metals such as mercury
[97–100]. Regular consumption of such foods,
especially from contaminated sources, can
contribute to oxidative stress, inflammation,
and accelerated aging. While salo holds deep
cultural and culinary importance, it is essential
to consider sourcing it from less-contaminated
environments and consuming it in moderation
to reduce health risks.
By understanding the bioaccumulation of
plastics in fatty tissues, from environmental
persistence to dietary implications, researchers
and policymakers can develop targeted strate-
gies to address the global challenges of plastic
pollution while promoting informed dietary
choices and safeguarding public health.
Bioavailable plastic, exogenic fatty acids, and
the brain.
The human brain is approximately 60% fat,
making it one of the fattiest organs in the body
[101]. This high fat content plays a crucial role
in brain function as it helps form the myelin
sheath that insulates neurons, facilitates com-
munication between cells, and supports the
structural integrity of the brain’s membranes.
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BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Research suggests that the fats in our brains,
particularly in the neocortex, played a crucial
role in the evolution of human intelligence.
The variety of fat molecules found in the hu-
man neocortex, the brain region responsible
for advanced cognitive functions such as lan-
guage, evolved at an exceptionally fast rate af-
ter the human–ape split [102, 103].
Approximately 20–30% of the brain’s total
weight is composed of myelin, a crucial com-
ponent that functions as insulation around
nerve fibers, much like the coating around
electrical wires [104]. By reducing electrical
resistance and minimizing signal loss, my
elin enables nerve impulses (action potentials)
to travel rapidly and efficiently along axons.
This high-speed signal transmission is vital
for fundamental processes such as movement,
sensation, and cognition. Structurally, myelin
is a complex mixture of lipids (fats) and pro-
teins, with lipids making up about 70–80% of
its composition [105]. These lipids are essential
for maintaining the integrity and functionality
of the myelin sheath [106]. Fig. 3 illustrates the
structures of the major fatty acids involved in
the synthesis of myelin.
Fig. 3. Structures of the major fatty acids involved in the synthesis of myelin.
Oleic acid is a mono-unsaturated fatty acid
that contributes to the fluidity and stability of
myelin membranes; palmitic acid is a saturat-
ed fatty acid that plays a role in the structural
integrity of myelin; stearic acid is another sat-
urated fatty acid important for maintaining
the compactness of myelin; arachidonic acid
is a polyunsaturated fatty acid involved in sig-
naling and maintaining membrane dynamics;
docosahexaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid
essential for neural development and myelin
repair; while linoleic acid is an omega-6 fatty
acid that supports the synthesis of other es-
sential lipids in myelin [107]. These fatty acids
are further assembled into phospholipids and
glycolipids (Fig. 4) which serve as key building
blocks of cell membranes and myelin sheaths
[108].
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Fig. 4. Essential building blocks of cell membranes and myelin sheaths.
The accumulation of nanoplastics in the
brains of various species, including humans,
has been thoroughly documented and rais-
es significant concerns. Studies show that the
brain, due to its high fat content, serves as the
most prevalent site for plastic deposition with-
in the body. Comparisons of plastic amounts
in the brain and other organs of the same indi-
vidual highlight this striking propensity. This
bioaccumulation has severe consequences as
it has been linked to numerous neurodegen-
erative diseases [82, 109–114]. A recent study
on decedent brains revealed that the largest
relative proportions of plastic were found in
individuals diagnosed with dementia, sug-
gesting a potential correlation between plastic
accumulation and cognitive disorders [115].
The mechanisms underlying the effects of na-
noplastics on the brain remain unclear but
are likely multifaceted. One hypothesis posits
that nanoplastics trigger oxidative stress and
immune responses, leading to elevated le
vels of inflammatory mediators. This cascade
reduces the expression and function of re
gulatory proteins while increasing inhibitory
protein expression. Such disruptions result in
lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, misfolded
protein accumulation, activation of apoptosis
pathways, and neuroinflammation [23, 110].
Another explanation considers the possibil-
ity that nanoplastics suppress the expression
of neurotransmitter-related genes and reduce
antioxidant enzyme activity despite increased
expression of proteins involved in oxidative
stress in specific brain regions and neural cells.
This interference disrupts the production and
function of proteins crucial for neural develop-
ment and the structural plasticity of the central
nervous system [110,111].
However, an alternative hypothesis to con-
sider is rooted in the foundational principles
of organic chemistry. Plastics, which exhibit
strength and rigidity at the macroscale, un-
dergo a remarkable transformation as their
size diminishes. As the size of these materials
is reduced, they become increasingly flexible
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BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
and deformable, a phenomenon that is well
documented [116,117]. This size reduction
induces heightened instability in their crys-
talline structures, rendering the materials
more susceptible to deformation and fracture
under lower stress levels. Additionally, the
significant surface-to-volume ratio character-
istic of nanoplastics can lead to pronounced
shifts in mechanical properties, including re-
ductions in hardness and strength [118, 119].
Once nanoplastics reach a certain diminutive
size, it can be argued that, despite retaining a
similar chemical composition, the defining
properties of the original plastic may be fun-
damentally altered or entirely lost. This raises
a critical question, at what lower size limit can
particles still be classified as nanoplastics? We
also propose the importance of distinguishing
between plastics as polymers and the degraded
byproducts of their breakdown, i.e. oligomers
that carry functional groups formed through
the cleavage of C–C and C–H bonds in the
parent polymer. Establishing such a concep-
tual framework could help clarify the evolving
nature of plastics and their transformations
across different scales.
Research indicates that PP particles in the
10–30 nm range can induce oxidative stress,
reduce acetylcholinesterase activity, and pro-
mote α-synuclein aggregation [120]. These
effects are linked to severe neurological out-
comes, including cognitive decline, memory
deficiency, Alzheimer’s disease [121–123], and
Parkinson’s disease [124–127]. Considering
that endogenous fatty acids and phospholipids
measure between 1–4 nm, and that phospho-
lipids naturally organize into bilayers – form-
ing a typical membrane thickness of approxi-
mately 10 nm – we propose that the threshold
distinguishing nanoplastics from oligomers
should be set at around 10 nm. This distinction
would provide a meaningful framework for
understanding their biological and toxicolo
gical impacts.
Solvation-assisted desorption of approx-
imately 10 nm PE oligomers is theoretically
feasible within fatty tissue, a lipophilic matrix
comprised primarily of triglycerides, phospho-
lipids, and other lipophilic macromolecules.
The translocation of, for example, PE oligomers
from a surface into fatty tissue is thermody-
namically favored, driven by the shift from a
constrained, surface-bound state to a fully sol-
vated environment. When adsorbed on a sur-
face, the oligomer experiences limited, direc-
tional van der Waals interactions resulting in
a comparatively unstable energetic state. Con-
versely, within fatty tissue at the human body
temperature of ~37 °C, the oligomer engages in
omnidirectional interactions with surround-
ing lipids leading to a significant enthalpy gain
and a substantial increase in entropy, thus low-
ering its Gibbs’ free energy. The entropy factor
is particularly crucial as the increased freedom
of movement in the solvated state significant-
ly contributes to overall thermodynamic fa-
vorability. This transition, while spontaneous
due to the favorable thermodynamic profile,
necessitates overcoming an activation energy
barrier, primarily the energy required to dis-
rupt the surface constraint and initiate solva-
tion. Therefore, while the process is not a ze-
ro-change event, the combined influence of the
enthalpy gain, the substantial increase in en-
tropy, and the physiological temperature with-
in the human body provides a potent driving
force for the oligomer’s release and dissolution
in the lipophilic matrix of fatty tissue.
From an organic chemistry perspective,
some of these oligomers as part of plastics’
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Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel D. Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim A. Soloshonok UCJ № 5 / Vol. 91
end-of-life products, are homologs of endog-
enous fatty acids like palmitic, stearic, oleic,
and linoleic acids. These endogenous fatty ac-
ids are prevalent in membranes and the myelin
sheath where they contribute to the synthesis
of phospholipids and other lipophilic macro-
molecules.
Due to known enzyme promiscuity [128–
130], plastic-derived exogenous fatty acids can
be utilized in the biosynthesis of phosphor- and
glycolipids and subsequently incorporated into
membranes and myelin sheaths. Specifically,
enzymes such as acyl-CoA synthetases [131],
glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferases [132],
lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferases [133],
and sphingosine N-acyltransferases [134] may
take up these exogenous fatty acids as sub-
strates, thus altering the lipid composition of
cellular structures. In particular, this could af-
fect membrane fluidity, stability, and function,
potentially disrupting cellular processes.
The incorporation of exogenous fatty acids
into myelin, particularly within the brain, has
the potential to significantly impact myelin
turnover and remodeling [135]. Given myelin’s
highly specialized structure and composition,
finely tuned to support neural function, even
subtle variations in fatty acid characteristics,
such as chain length, saturation, or functional
groups, could disrupt its precisely tuned pro
perties [136]. Thus, disruption by incorpora-
tion of exogenous fatty acids may compromise
myelin’s structural integrity and insulating
properties, subsequently affecting axonal con-
duction and neural signaling. Furthermore, the
dynamic nature of myelin lipid turnover sug-
gests that exogenous fatty acids could alter the
rates of lipid synthesis, degradation, and recy-
cling. For instance, increased susceptibility to
oxidation in these exogenous fatty acids might
accelerate lipid turnover due to oxidative dam-
age, while inefficient integration could slow the
process. Myelin remodeling, crucial for devel-
opment, learning, and repair, relies on specific
lipid availability; suboptimal exogenous fatty
acids could hinder this process, affecting brain
plasticity and recovery [137]. While some ex-
ogenous fatty acids, such as certain omega-3
analogs, may exhibit neuroprotective effects,
the overall impact of replacing endogenous
fatty acids depends on their specific proper-
ties. Consequently, these replacements could
either integrate seamlessly or disrupt the deli-
cate balance essential for myelin’s structure and
function, further research to elucidate these
complex dynamics and their implications for
neural health is necessitated.
Additives, leaching, and hormonal dysfunc-
tion.
Plastics, beyond their synthetic polymer
base, commonly incorporate a diverse array of
additives and fillers/reinforcements to enhance
performance characteristics. These include
antioxidants, stabilizers, plasticizers such as
bisphenol A and phthalates, flame retardants,
colorants, inorganic particles, and organic and
inorganic fibers. Furthermore, residual func-
tionalized monomers and oligomers of the
starting materials are frequently present within
the plastic matrix [138–140].
Quantifying the number of additives em-
ployed in plastics is challenging due to the
breadth and dynamic nature of the indus-
try. However, available data indicates that
thousands of chemicals are utilized in plastic
production with studies suggesting figures
exceeding 10,000 [139]. Notably, the availabi
lity and quality of safety data for these chemi-
cals are highly variable. The complex and often
opaque composition of plastics further hinders
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BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
accurate quantification [141]. Consequent-
ly, while a definitive number remains elusive,
it is evident that a substantial proportion of
these chemicals lack adequate safety data, un-
derscoring the complexity of this issue and its
potential detrimental effects on both the envi-
ronment and human health [32, 33, 142–144].
The leaching of additive chemicals from
plastics into the human body represents a sig-
nificant health concern with pathways includ-
ing ingestion, dermal absorption, inhalation,
and medical device exposure. Within food sys-
tems, additives migrate from plastic packaging
and utensils, particularly under conditions of
heat, acidity, or prolonged contact with fatty
substances, leading to ingestion and systemic
exposure [145–147]. Similarly, dermal contact
with plasticized products facilitates the absorp-
tion of additives through the skin, a process
exacerbated prolonged exposure. Inhalation
of volatile additives and micro-/nanoplastics
from indoor environments and heated plastics
provides another route of entry, while the use
of plastic medical devices introduces direct ex-
posure to internal tissues and fluids. Environ-
mental contamination by micro-/nanoplastics
further contributes to ingestion and inhalation
exposures. The extent of leaching is influenced
by factors such as temperature, pH, food/liq-
uid composition, contact time, plastic type,
and additive characteristics. Consequently, the
potential for endocrine disruption, reproduc-
tive toxicity, and other adverse health effects
necessitates further research into the complex
dynamics of additive leaching and its implica-
tions for human health [148–150].
Due to their widespread use in plastics and
resins and demonstrated endocrine-disrupting
properties, bisphenols A, S, and F (Fig. 5) are
among the most prevalent and concerning bi-
sphenols for potential adverse human health
effects [151].
Bisphenols exert their endocrine-disrupt-
ing effects through multiple mechanisms, in-
cluding acting as estrogen receptor agonists,
mimicking endogenous estrogens or behaving
as antagonists, or blocking estrogen as well as
interfering with other hormone receptors, dis-
rupting enzyme activity, inducing epigenetic
modifications, or causing oxidative stress and
inflammation thereby disrupting normal hor-
monal signaling and cellular function [152].
Fig. 5. Chemical structures of the most prevalent bisphenols and major endogenous estrogens.
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Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel D. Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim A. Soloshonok UCJ № 5 / Vol. 91
Literature data indicates that bisphenol ex-
posure can impact both male and female fetus-
es and infants, with effects varying significant-
ly due to the sex-specific roles of hormones
during development [153–155]. Both sexes are
extremely vulnerable to developmental and
biological impacts due to the sensitivity of hor-
monal balance during the early stages of life.
In males, prenatal and early postnatal expo-
sure to bisphenols has been shown to disrupt
the development of the male reproductive sys-
tem, leading to reduced sperm count and im-
paired sperm motility. This disruption arises
from bisphenols’ interference with testosterone
production and function, which is critical for
spermatogenesis, and these effects are attrib-
uted to their endocrine-disrupting properties.
Exposure to bisphenols can also cause hormo-
nal imbalances, manifesting as reduced testo
sterone levels and changes in secondary sexual
characteristics, described as “emasculating”
effects that are linked to bisphenols’ interac-
tions with androgen receptors. Additionally,
altered anogenital distance (AGD), a sexually
dimorphic trait influenced by prenatal andro-
gen levels, may be shortened in male infants
exposed to bisphenols, suggesting disrupted
androgen signaling during critical develop-
mental periods. Moreover, prenatal bisphenol
exposure has been associated with abnormal
prostate gland development, potentially in-
creasing the risk of prostate-related health is-
sues in adulthood, likely due to disruptions in
hormonal pathways during prostate formation
[156–158].
In females, bisphenol exposure can inter-
fere with estrogen signaling and affect ovarian
development, egg maturation, and the forma-
tion of the reproductive tract. Such disruptions
potentially result in long-term reproductive
health problems. Prenatal bisphenol exposure
may also accelerate puberty, resulting in ear-
ly menarche and associated health concerns,
and it may negatively affect fertility, increasing
the risk of conditions such as polycystic ovary
syndrome. Although less studied, it is hypothe-
sized that bisphenols could alter the estrogen–
androgen balance, potentially increasing mus-
culature in females due to disrupted hormonal
signaling. Furthermore, since bisphenols’ in-
terference with estrogen pathways may impair
ovarian development and egg maturation, this
can potentially result in infertility. Bisphenol
exposure is decisive if it coincides with sen-
sitive developmental windows and the effects
of bisphenols can be enduring and potentially
span multiple generations. Further research is
required to fully understand the complex and
multifaceted effects of bisphenol exposure on
human development [159–161].
Phthalates, like bisphenols, are endocri
ne-disrupting chemicals, but their effects dif-
fer slightly in scope and mechanism. While
both can interfere with hormonal processes,
phthalates are particularly known for their an-
ti-androgenic effects, i.e. they block or reduce
the action of male hormones like testosterone
[162–164].
Phthalates (Fig. 6) generally need to have
a lipophilic aliphatic part in addition to their
aromatic ring and carbonyl groups to function
as effective endocrine disruptors, including
their anti-androgenic activity. The lipophilic
aliphatic chains, such as ethyl, hexyl, butyl, or
benzyl groups, contribute to the hydrophobic
nature of phthalates, allowing them to easily
interact with lipid-rich environments like cell
membranes. This property is critical for their
ability to penetrate biological systems and
bind to hormone receptors or disrupt enzyme
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BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
function. The aromatic ring, as well as con-
tributing to chemical stability, also contributes
to interaction with specific molecular targets,
e.g. in binding to receptor sites or enzymes in-
volved in hormonal signaling. The carbonyls of
the ester groups are essential for chemical re-
activity and contribute to the ability of phtha-
lates to interact with biological molecules such
as proteins, receptors, or enzymes involved
in endocrine system regulation. While these
structural elements make phthalates highly ef-
fective as plasticizers, they also enable the en-
docrine-disrupting properties [165,166] and
the combination of these structural elements
allows phthalates to interfere with hormonal
balance and signaling in various ways despite
phthalates being structurally different from
natural hormones like testosterone and estro-
gen [167].
Fig. 6. Chemical structures of most prevalent ortho-phthalates and the androgen testosterone.
In male babies, prenatal exposure to phtha-
lates has been linked to disrupted development
of the male reproductive system. This includes
reduced testosterone levels, altered AGD, and
potential impacts on testicular descent and pe-
nile development. Such changes may lead to
fertility issues later in life including reduced
sperm count and motility. The anti-androgenic
properties of phthalates are a key factor in these
effects [168–170]. In female babies, phthalates
can disrupt estrogen signaling, potentially af-
fecting ovarian development and reproductive
tract formation. [171–173]. While less studied,
there is evidence suggesting that phthalates
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Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel D. Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim A. Soloshonok UCJ № 5 / Vol. 91
may also influence the timing of puberty and
increase the risk of reproductive health issues,
such as reduced fertility or hormonal imba
lances [174–176]. Overall, while both bisphe-
nols and phthalates disrupt hormonal systems,
phthalates are more strongly associated with
anti-androgenic effects, whereas bisphenols
often mimic estrogen. Of particular note, the
timing and level of exposure to these leached
additives are critical in determining the sever-
ity of their impacts. Phthalates primarily act
as anti-androgens, i.e. they interfere with male
hormones like testosterone rather than mi
micking estrogen directly. Unlike bisphenols,
which have a phenol group that allows them to
mimic estrogen, phthalates lack this structural
feature. However, phthalates can still disrupt
hormonal signaling by binding to hormone
receptors or altering hormone production.
Interestingly, some studies suggest that phtha-
lates may have weak estrogenic activity under
certain conditions, but their primary mode of
action is through blocking androgen receptors
and reducing testosterone synthesis [177]. This
is why their effects are often more pronounced
in disrupting male reproductive development
such as altering AGD and impairing testicular
function.
In contrast to testosterone, a steroid hor-
mone with a four-ring structure, phthalates are
simple diesters of phthalic acid. Phthalates ex-
ert their endocrine-disrupting effects primari-
ly by interfering with androgen signaling rath-
er than mimicking testosterone [178] to which
they are structural dissimilar and are potent
anti-androgens [179]. and their disruption of
the endocrine system is due to their ability to
inhibit testosterone function and production.
ortho-Phthalates require a combination of
structural features to effectively interact with
biological systems. These include a lipophilic
aliphatic part, an aromatic ring, and a carbonyl
group. The lipophilic aliphatic chains enhance
their hydrophobic nature, allowing them to
interact with lipid-rich environments, such as
cell membranes, facilitating their entry into
biological systems. The aromatic ring contrib-
utes to their chemical stability and interac-
tion with molecular targets such as hormone
receptors and enzymes involved in hormonal
signaling. The carbonyl of the ester function-
alities is essential for their reactivity, allowing
them to interact with biological molecules in-
volved in endocrine processes. Phthalates also
act by mechanisms such as androgen receptor
interference whereby they block the binding
of testosterone and other androgens to their
receptors inhibiting normal androgen signa-
ling pathways critical for reproductive deve
lopment [180]. They can inhibit testosterone
synthesis by disrupting enzymes involved in
its production leading to reduced testoster-
one levels. Additionally, phthalates alter the
expression of genes regulated by testosterone,
affecting the development of androgen-de-
pendent tissues [181]. These structural and
functional characteristics explain their potent
anti-androgenic activity and ability to dis-
rupt male reproductive development, such as
reducing anogenital distance, impairing tes-
ticular development, and altering secondary
sexual characteristics. While phthalates differ
greatly in structure from testosterone, their
anti-androgenic effects arise from their ability
to block and inhibit the hormonal processes
regulated by androgens [182,183]. So, while
phthalates don’t mimic estrogen in the same
way bisphenols do, they are potent endocrine
disruptors with their own unique mechanisms
of action.
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BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CONCLUSIONS. The range of health prob-
lems associated with plastic, as outlined in this
article, is far from exhaustive. Ongoing research
continues to uncover new areas of concern
and expand upon previously identified issues
related to plastic exposure. Among the most
alarming findings is the emerging evidence of
a potential connection between plastic expo-
sure and premature cognitive decline in older
adults, potentially contributing to the onset or
worsening of neurodegenerative diseases, in-
cluding those linked to dementia. Moreover,
chemicals leached from plastics, particular-
ly endocrine disruptors, have been shown to
cause hormonal imbalances, which may lead
to the masculinization of female development
and the feminization of male development. If
left unaddressed, these impacts could culmi-
nate in a significant and largely unanticipated
environmental health crisis.
This Perspective took a chemistry-based
approach to enhance our understanding, ex-
planation, and prediction of certain aspects of
plastic-related health issues. Specifically, we in-
troduced the concept of bioavailable plastic for
plastic particles smaller than 2.5 μm capable of
penetrating biological barriers. By examining
the physicochemical properties of bioavailable
plastic, it becomes evident that lipophilicity is
the key property underpinning bioavailable
plastic distribution within the human body and
other organisms. We emphasize that plastics
tend to accumulate in adipose tissues, includ-
ing visceral and subcutaneous fat as well as the
brain. Furthermore, we propose a mechanism
of solvation-assisted desorption whereby oligo-
meric molecules released from plastics in fatty
tissues generate mono- and dicarboxylic acids
that mimic endogenous fatty acids. These exog-
enous fatty acids can integrate into the biosyn-
thesis of phospholipids and glycolipids becom-
ing part of cell membranes and myelin sheaths.
These considerations may inspire meaningful
research aimed at improving protection for
neurological health in an increasingly plas-
tic-laden environment; until then, the broader
implications of such integration remain a sig-
nificant concern. Understanding the mechanis-
tic links between environmental exposure to
bioavailable plastic and central nervous system
disorders could pave the way for transformative
policy changes and preventive measures aimed
at safeguarding the health of future generations.
Although plastic is ubiquitous in our envi-
ronment, nevertheless one can take proactive
steps to reduce exposure and minimize poten-
tial health risks. One key recommendation is to
limit the consumption of fatty animal products,
particularly pig fat, known as salo. While salo
holds significant cultural and culinary value, it
appears to be one of the primary reservoirs for
plastic particles smaller than 200 nm, i.e. it is a
reservoir for bioavailable plastic. These parti-
cles are capable of penetrating biological bar-
riers in humans. To mitigate risks, salo should
be consumed in mindful moderation unless it
is sourced from animals raised and produced
in plastic-free environments. One simple and
effective way to reduce microplastic intake is
by switching from bottled water to filtered tap
water, which can decrease annual microplas-
tic consumption from 90,000 particles to just
4,000. Other key sources of microplastic intake
include the use of plastic tea bags and improp-
er food storage and heating. Plastic tea bags
release nanoparticles during brewing, so opt-
ing for loose-leaf tea or tea bags made from
natural materials is advisable. Heating food in
plastic containers, especially in the microwave,
can release substantial amounts of micro- and
51https://ucj.org.ua
Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel D. Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim A. Soloshonok UCJ № 5 / Vol. 91
nanoplastics. Using glass, ceramic, or stainless
steel containers for storing and heating food
can help avoid this issue. Additionally, choos-
ing clothing made from natural fibers and us-
ing laundry bags designed to catch microfibers
can reduce the release of microplastics during
washing. Reducing reliance on single-use plas-
tics, being mindful of personal care products
that contain microbeads, and engaging in reg-
ular physical activities that promote sweating
can also help minimize microplastic exposure
as sweating can help cleanse the body of plas-
tics that have already been ingested. Indeed,
any activity that promotes sweating and not
just physical exercise such as sauna sessions
may aid in the elimination of bioavailable plas-
tic. And while researchers are still investigat-
ing this process, the initial findings do suggest
that sweating could play a significant role in
helping the body expel these unwanted parti-
cles. By incorporating these practices into dai-
ly routines, one can help protect oneself from
the potential health risks associated with mi-
croplastics. Lastly, staying informed about the
latest research, educating others, and advocat-
ing for policies that promote sustainable mate-
rials and practices are crucial steps in reducing
plastic pollution and protecting public health.
By adopting these measures, we can minimize
our exposure to microplastics and contribute
to a healthier environment for ourselves and
for future generations to come.
We gratefully acknowledge the finan
cial support from IKERBASQUE,
Basque Foundation for Science (for
Soloshonok). The authors acknow
ledge the assistance of Microsoft Co
pilot and Google Gemini for their
support with Ukrainian translation.
БІОДОСТУПНИЙ ПЛАСТИК: ВІД КОГНІТИВНОГО
ЗАНЕПАДУ У СТАРШИХ ЛЮДЕЙ
ДО ГОРМОНАЛЬНИХ ЗБОЇВ У МОЛОДШИХ
Дзяньлінь Хань¹, Аліція Взорек²,
Карел Д. Кліка³, Таїзо Оно⁴,
Вадим А. Солошонок*5,6
1 Цзянсу, Центр співінновацій
ефективного оброблення та використання
лісових ресурсів, Хімічний факультет,
Лісотехнічний університет Нанкіна,
Нанкін 210037, Китай;
2 Хімічний інститут, Університет Яна
Кохановського в Кельці,
вул. Університетська 7, 25–406 Кельце,
Польща;
3 Центр досліджень і розроблень, Archer
Daniels Midland, 1001 N Brush College Rd.,
Декатур, IL 62521, США
4 Національний інститут передової науки
та технологій (AIST),
2266–98, Анагахора, Шімошідамі,
район Моріяма, Нагоя, 463–8560, Японія;
5 Відділ органічної хімії I, Хімічний
факультет, Університет Країни Басків
UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel Lardizábal 3, 20018
Сан-Себастіан, Іспанія;
6 ІКЕРБАСКЕ, Баскська наукова фундація,
вул. Марія Діас де Харо 3, Площа Бізкая,
48013 Більбао, Іспанія
email: vadimsoloshonok@gmail.com
Присвята. Присвячується Кейсі та Каллі
Мінз, відважним борцям за науку та здо-
ров’я, за їхню натхненну діяльність у сфері
переосмислення здорового способу життя
та розширення можливостей людей конт
ролювати власну метаболічну долю.
52 ISSN 2708-129X. Укр. хім. журн., 2025
BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG.ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Мікро/нанопластики являють собою
повсюдний екологічний забруднювач із по-
тенційними негативними наслідками для
всіх живих організмів. Постійні досліджен-
ня виявляють нові та розширюють існую-
чі занепокоєння щодо впливу пластику.
Зокрема, з’являються докази зв’язку між
впливом пластику та передчасним когні-
тивним занепадом у літніх людей, що по-
тенційно сприяє розвитку або загостренню
нейродегенеративних захворювань, пов’я-
заних із деменцією. Крім цього, хімічні ре-
човини, отримані з пластику, є особливо
руйнівними в ендокринному плані і пов’я-
зані з гормональними порушеннями, що
потенційно призводить до маскулінізації
розвитку жінок та фемінізації розвитку чо-
ловіків. Якщо ці наслідки не будуть пом’як-
шені, вони можуть спричинити значну та
непередбачену екологічну кризу здоров’я.
У цій перспективній статті використа-
но хімічний підхід для роз’яснення питань,
пов’язаних зі здоров’ям, які виникають
через пластик, вводячи поняття «біодо-
ступний пластик» – це частинки розміром
менше 2,5 мікронів, здатні проникати через
біологічні бар’єри. Ми підкреслюємо ліпо-
фільність як ключову фізико-хімічну влас-
тивість, що визначає розподіл цих части-
нок в організмах, наголошуючи на їхньому
накопиченні в жировій тканині, включаю-
чи мозок. Крім цього, ми пропонуємо меха-
нізм сольватаційно-асистованої десорбції,
за яким олігомерні молекули, що вивіль-
няються з пластику в жирових тканинах,
утворюють моно- та дикарбонові кислоти,
що імітують ендогенні жирні кислоти. Ці
екзогенні жирні кислоти можуть інтегру-
ватися в біосинтез фосфоліпідів та гліко-
ліпідів, стаючи компонентами клітинних
мембран та мієлінових оболонок. Ці мір-
кування повинні стимулювати досліджен-
ня, спрямовані на захист неврологічного
здоров’я в умовах все більш насиченого
пластиком середовища, хоча ширші наслід-
ки цієї інтеграції викликають значне зане-
покоєння. Механістичне розуміння зв’язку
між впливом біодоступного пластику та
розладами центральної нервової системи
(ЦНС) є вирішальним для інформуван-
ня трансформаційних політичних змін та
профілактичних заходів, спрямованих на
захист здоров’я майбутніх поколінь. Щоб
надати читачам дієві стратегії для зменшен-
ня впливу пластику, ми пропонуємо кілька
рекомендацій. Зокрема, рекомендовано
обмежити споживання жирних продуктів
тваринного походження, особливо свиня-
чого сала. Хоча сало є культурно значущим
продуктом, воно, напевно, є основним ре-
зервуаром біодоступних частинок пласти-
ку, особливо розміром менше 200 нм. Ці
наночастинки, через їхню здатність про-
никати через біологічні бар’єри людини,
становлять значний ризик. Цей огляд має
на меті підкреслити критичну необхідність
комплексних досліджень довгострокових
наслідків мікропластику для здоров’я лю-
дини, висвітлюючи його повсюдне поши-
рення та потенційні приховані небезпеки.
Ключові слова: біодоступний пластик,
мікро-нанопластики, екологічні забрудню-
вачі, екологічна криза здоров’я, системне
забруднення, розподіл розмірів частинок,
проникнення через біологічні бар’єри,
когнітивний занепад, нейротоксичність,
пластикові добавки, бісфеноли, фталати,
гормональні порушення, ендокринна си-
стема, ліпофільність, ліпідо-опосередко-
ваний транспорт, накопичення в жировій
тканині, сало (український солений жир),
сольватаційно-асистована десорбція, ендо-
генні/екзогенні жирні кислоти.
53https://ucj.org.ua
Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel D. Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim A. Soloshonok UCJ № 5 / Vol. 91
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НАЦІОНАЛЬНА АКАДЕМІЯ НАУК УКРАЇНИ
ІНСТИТУТ ЗАГАЛЬНОЇ ТА НЕОРГАНІЧНОЇ ХІМІЇ імені В. І. ВЕРНАДСЬКОГО
КИЇВСЬКИЙ НАЦІОНАЛЬНИЙ УНІВЕРСИТЕТ імені ТАРАСА ШЕВЧЕНКА
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| id | oai:ojs2.1444248.nisspano.web.hosting-test.net:article-728 |
| institution | Ukrainian Chemistry Journal |
| keywords_txt_mv | keywords |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-07-23T01:13:08Z |
| publishDate | 2025 |
| publisher | V.I.Vernadsky Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry |
| record_format | ojs |
| resource_txt_mv | ucjorgua/00/8a253694885b7fbe3268763eb349e400.pdf |
| spelling | oai:ojs2.1444248.nisspano.web.hosting-test.net:article-7282026-07-22T08:23:56Z BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG(Review) Han, Jianlin Wzorek, Alicja Klika, Karel Ono, Taizo Soloshonok, Vadim Bioavailable Plastic, Micro-/Nanoplastics, Environmental Contaminants, Environmental Health Crisis Systemic Pollution, Particle Size Distribution, Biological Barrier Penetration, Cognitive Decline, Neurotoxicity, Plastic Additives, Bisphenols, Phthalates, Hormonal Disruption, Endocrine System, Lipophilicity, Lipid-Mediated Transport, Adipose Tissue Accumulation, Salo (Ukrainian Cured Fat), Solvation-Assisted Desorption, Endogenous/Exogenous Fatty Acids. Dedication: To Casey and Calley Means, fearless science and health advocates, for their inspiring work in redefining wellness and empowering individuals to take charge of their metabolic destinies. &nbsp; Micro-/nanoplastics represent a ubiquitous environmental contaminant with potential adverse effects across all living organisms. Ongoing research consistently reveals new and expands upon existing concerns regarding plastic exposure. Notably, emerging evidence suggests a link between plastic exposure and premature cognitive decline in older adults, potentially contributing to the onset or exacerbation of neurodegenerative diseases associated with dementia. Furthermore, endocrine-disrupting chemicals derived from plastics have been implicated in hormonal imbalances, potentially resulting in the masculinization of female development and the feminization of male development. If unmitigated, these impacts could precipitate a substantial and unforeseen environmental health crisis. This Perspective employs a chemistry-based approach to elucidate plastic-related health issues and introduces the concept of bioavailable plastic, i.e. plastic particles smaller than 2.5 μm capable of biological barrier penetration. We highlight lipophilicity as the key physicochemical property responsible for the uptake of these particles within organisms particularly their accumulation in adipose tissues, including the brain. Furthermore, we propose a solvation-assisted desorption mechanism whereby oligomeric molecules released from plastics in fatty tissues generate mono- and dicarboxylic acids that mimic endogenous fatty acids. These exogenous fatty acids can integrate into phospholipid and glycolipid biosynthesis becoming components of cell membranes and myelin sheaths. These considerations should stimulate research aimed at neurological health protection in an increasingly plastic-laden environment, though the broader implications of this integration are of significant concern. Mechanistic understanding of the link between bioavailable plastic exposure and central nervous system disorders is crucial for informing transformative policy changes and preventive measures to safeguard future generations’ health. To empower readers with actionable strategies for reducing plastic exposure, we offer several recommendations. Notably, limiting the consumption of fatty animal products, especially pork fat (salo) is advised. While salo is a culturally significant food, it appears to be a major reservoir for plastic particles, particularly those smaller than 200 nm, i.e. bioavailable plastic. These nanoparticles, due to their ability to traverse biological barriers in humans, pose a considerable risk. This Perspective seeks to underscore the critical need for comprehensive research into the long-term health effects of microplastics highlighting their pervasive presence and potential hidden dangers. V.I.Vernadsky Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry 2025-06-25 Article Article Organic chemistry Органическая xимия Органічна xімія application/pdf https://ucj.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/728 10.33609/2708-129X.91.5.2025.33-62 Ukrainian Chemistry Journal; Vol. 91 No. 5 (2025): Ukrainian Chemistry Journal; 33-62 Украинский химический журнал; ##issue.vol## 91 ##issue.no## 5 (2025): Ukrainian Chemistry Journal; 33-62 Український хімічний журнал; Том 91 № 5 (2025): Ukrainian Chemistry Journal; 33-62 2708-129X 2708-1281 en https://ucj.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/728/368 Copyright (c) 2025 Jianlin Han, Alicja Wzorek, Karel Klika, Taizo Ono, Vadim Soloshonok https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0 |
| spellingShingle | Han, Jianlin Wzorek, Alicja Klika, Karel Ono, Taizo Soloshonok, Vadim BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG(Review) |
| title | BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG(Review) |
| title_full | BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG(Review) |
| title_fullStr | BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG(Review) |
| title_full_unstemmed | BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG(Review) |
| title_short | BIOAVAILABLE PLASTIC: FROM COGNITIVE DECLINE IN THE OLD TO HORMONAL DISRUPTION IN THE YOUNG(Review) |
| title_sort | bioavailable plastic: from cognitive decline in the old to hormonal disruption in the young(review) |
| topic_facet | Bioavailable Plastic Micro-/Nanoplastics Environmental Contaminants Environmental Health Crisis Systemic Pollution Particle Size Distribution Biological Barrier Penetration Cognitive Decline Neurotoxicity Plastic Additives Bisphenols Phthalates Hormonal Disruption Endocrine System Lipophilicity Lipid-Mediated Transport Adipose Tissue Accumulation Salo (Ukrainian Cured Fat) Solvation-Assisted Desorption Endogenous/Exogenous Fatty Acids. |
| url | https://ucj.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/728 |
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