Діброва дендропарку “Олександрія”. Частина 2. Моделі занепаду діброви
The results of new studies of the old natural forest of the “Оlexandria” State Dendrological Park of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine are presented. Complexes of negative factors in different forest areas caused different degradation models. Episodic decline in the 1980s due to abnormal cl...
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2024
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| author | Dragan, Nina Boiko, Nataliia Doiko, Nataliia Sylenko, Oleksandr Pydorich, Yuriy |
| author_facet | Dragan, Nina Boiko, Nataliia Doiko, Nataliia Sylenko, Oleksandr Pydorich, Yuriy |
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| description | The results of new studies of the old natural forest of the “Оlexandria” State Dendrological Park of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine are presented. Complexes of negative factors in different forest areas caused different degradation models. Episodic decline in the 1980s due to abnormal climatic conditions and defoliation of oaks by xylophages are explained by Thomas’s model of decline with further interference with Macháčová’s model of decline. Without weather anomalies, the decline followed Houston’s model on a significant part of the timber for a long time. It was a linear process in which healthy trees weakened due to random negative factors and died as a result of the subsequent action of secondary pathogens. Most of the forest declined over a long time, according to Manion’s model. The initiating factor of decline was artificial, caused by anthropogenic pollution in the western part of the forest and interference with the integrity and structure in the central part. The latter was the most harmful for the forest, and it caused a strong ecotonization of the forest with a massive loss of oaks in the ecotones. The destruction of timber due to anthropogenic intervention was linear and irreversible. Under the action of factors of a non-anthropogenic nature, the destruction of the forest could be suspended if the action of adverse factors could be terminated. The modern aridization of the climate caused a significant deterioration of the oak forest, increased the loss of oak trees, and varied the patterns of decline in its anthropogenically transformed areas. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.46341/PI2024009 |
| first_indexed | 2025-07-17T12:54:25Z |
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Plant Introduction, 103/104, 43–60 (2024)
© The Authors. This content is provided under CC BY 4.0 license.
RESEARCH ARTICLE
The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2. Models of forest
decline
Nina Dragan 1, *, Nataliia Boiko 1, Nataliia Doiko 1, Oleksandr Sylenko 2, 1, Yuriy Pydorich 1
1 The “Оlexandria” State Dendrological Park of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine, 09113 Bila Tserkva, Kyiv region, Ukraine;
* ninapark@ukr.net
2 Institute for Evolutionary Ecology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Academician Lebedev str. 37, 03143 Kyiv, Ukraine
Received: 09.11.2024 | Accepted: 28.12.2024 | Published online: 29.12.2024
Abstract
The results of new studies of the old natural forest of the “Оlexandria” State Dendrological Park of
the National Academy of Science of Ukraine are presented. Complexes of negative factors in different
forest areas caused different degradation models. Episodic decline in the 1980s due to abnormal
climatic conditions and defoliation of oaks by xylophages are explained by Thomas’s model of decline
with further interference with Macháčová’s model of decline. Without weather anomalies, the decline
followed Houston’s model on a significant part of the timber for a long time. It was a linear process in
which healthy trees weakened due to random negative factors and died as a result of the subsequent
action of secondary pathogens. Most of the forest declined over a long time, according to Manion’s model.
The initiating factor of decline was artificial, caused by anthropogenic pollution in the western part of
the forest and interference with the integrity and structure in the central part. The latter was the most
harmful for the forest, and it caused a strong ecotonization of the forest with a massive loss of oaks in the
ecotones. The destruction of timber due to anthropogenic intervention was linear and irreversible. Under
the action of factors of a non-anthropogenic nature, the destruction of the forest could be suspended if the
action of adverse factors could be terminated. The modern aridization of the climate caused a significant
deterioration of the oak forest, increased the loss of oak trees, and varied the patterns of decline in its
anthropogenically transformed areas.
Keywords: decline models, disturbing factors, phytosanitary condition, oak loss, anthropogenic transformation, technogenic
pollution, ecotonization, climatic anomalies
https://doi.org/10.46341/PI2024009
UDC 582.114 : 630 * 228 (477.41)
Authors’ contributions: Nina Dragan – conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, investigation, methodology, supervision,
validation, writing – original draft, writing – review & editing. Nataliia Boiko – data curation, formal analysis, methodology, project
administration, supervision, validation, writing – review & editing. Nataliia Doiko – investigation, supervision, validation, writing –
review & editing. Oleksandr Sylenko – visualization. Yuriy Pydorich – investigation, writing – review & editing.
Funding: The study was carried out within the framework of the departmental theme of applied research: “Natural and anthropogenic
transformation and scientific foundations for preserving the biodiversity of autochthonous and introduced flora of the dendrological
park “Olexandria” of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine” (2022–2027), which is funded under the budget program 6541030
(fundamental research).
Competing Interests: The authors declared no conflict of interest.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9371-1044
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6286-4870
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6915-3054
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4952-7201
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4169-0795
44 Plant Introduction • 103/104
Dragan et al.
trees is considered a directed linear process,
where healthy trees are increasingly weakened
by a random combination of stressors, making
them more accessible to secondary pathogens,
which usually cannot infect a healthy tree.
Ostry et al. (2011) believe that Houston’s
disease triangle is a fundamental conceptual
model in plant pathology and illustrates
how disease arises from the interaction of
host, pathogen, and environment. According
to Houston (1987), population degradation
and dieback will occur if the effects of
unfavorable factors on the population become
too numerous and intense. Earlier, Houston
(1981) also demonstrated that two principal
groups of factors cause disease. An adverse
environmental factor (stress) often results in
secondary lethal attacks by organisms that
otherwise have a minor influence on the
trees. Such organisms usually cause a phase of
decline, which often results in tree dieback.
There is another model of forest decline,
less mentioned in the specialized literature
– the model of Sinclair & Hudler (1988). The
authors assumed that decline-causing diseases
differ in the types and sequence of provoking
factors and cannot be ascertained by only one
model. Hence, they considered a combination
of several models:
1. Decline caused by prolonged/chronic
stress due to a single factor. These can
be phytoplasmas, viruses, and some
Introduction
Since the end of the 20th century, the death
of oak forests has been considered a complex
syndrome of multifactorial origin (Gottschalk
& Wargo, 1997; Denman & Webber, 2009; Ostry
et al., 2011; Attarod et al., 2017; Gentilesca et al.,
2017).
The symptoms preceding or accompanying
the weakening and death of forests were
described as Waldsterben Syndrome (forest
dieback syndrome), later – as Neuartige
Waldschäden (novel forest damage)
(Hinrichsen, 1987; Kandler, 1992; Schütt &
Cowling, 1985; Skelly, 1992). The term ‘forest
dieback’ has been used to describe complex
forest diseases, whether the etiology was
known or not (Manion, 1981; Houston, 1981;
Stephen et al., 2001; Sinclair & Lyon, 2005).
Symptoms of decline include tree growth
depression, shortening of internodes, root
necrosis, premature yellowing, and leaf drop,
shoot and branch dieback, crown thinning and
drying, prevalence and pathogenicity of root
rot fungi (Manion, 1981; Manion & Lachance,
1992).
Colhoun (1973, 1979) and, later, Ostry et al.
(2011) noticed the need to investigate the
influence of interactions between multiple
environmental factors on forest disease
development. A thorough review of oak
decline studies with analyses of provoking
factors and new methodological approaches
was made by several authors (Delatour, 1983;
Schütt, 1993; Auclair, 2005; Kowsari & Karimi,
2023). The result of realizing the complex
etiology of woody plant diseases was the
formulation of conceptual models of ‘diseases
of decline’.
As early, Ward (1902) described the
factors that weaken a tree and make it less
resistant to stress factors – the ‘inducing
factors’ that are directly responsible for the
initial symptoms of tree weakening and the
‘contributing factors’ that eventually cause
the tree to die.
One of the best-known is Houston’s
conceptual model of forest decline (Houston,
1987). To explain the decline and dieback
of numerous species of woody plants, the
author proposed a common etiology, which
he later described in a ‘host-stress-external
conditions’ model. This model was named the
chain disease model (Fig. 1). Degradation of oak
Figure 1. Modified disease triangle, reflecting the
concepts of contributing, inciting, and predisposing
determinants typically mentioned in discussions of
forest decline (Ostry et al., 2011).
Plant Introduction • 103/104 45
The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2
other slow-acting parasites of leaves,
roots, or sapwood.
2. Decline caused by severe injury and
secondary stress. A significant short-
term event such as severe drought,
hurricane damage, or insect defoliation
reduces viability, so opportunistic
microorganisms and insects can
become active. They impede recovery
and degrade the health of the tree over
time. Neither of the two factors alone
will lead to a decline.
3. Decline caused by the interchangeable
factors of inclination, stimulation,
and facilitation. This concept was
first proposed by Sinclair (1965).
Later, this model was popularised and
developed by Manion (1991). Sinclair
(1965) characterized three decline
factors – predispositing, inducing, and
contributing. The author believed that
predisposition factors are often edaphic
factors that reduce the ability of trees to
resist biotic attacks. Under the inducing
factors, he considered events such as
drought or defoliation that lead to the
first symptoms of decline and reduce
the tree resistance. Contributing factors
included the above-mentioned agents,
plus various insects and pathogens that
can contribute to decline if provoked.
Further defoliation by insects, frost
damage, unfavorable soil conditions,
and a wide range of secondary insects
and pathogens occur.
4. Cohort aging. Coincides with the
concept proposed by Mueller-Dombois
(1987, 1992). A group of trees of
approximately equal age, having reached
a cumulative biomass that a given site
cannot support, ages roughly the same
time. Sinclair & Hudler (1988) noted
that cohort aging is a variant of the
previous concept, with tree age acting
as a susceptibility factor. The forest
dieback model of Sinclair & Hudler
(1988) was developed by Manion (1991),
who introduced a temporal sequence
of factors and their interactions. This
conceptual model is Manion’s, disease,
or death spiral (Fig. 2).
Manion (1991) cites three main groups of
factors that cause the degradation of oak
forests, which act in parallel and sequentially,
with a significant overlap of their effects. First,
oak stands are affected by predisposition
factors for a long time, which gradually
weaken the trees. The factors of the second
group act sporadically but are the objective
initiating factors. By this time, the trees are
already weakened by the effects of the first
group of factors and cannot entirely resist the
impact of the second group of stress factors.
Last but not least, the plant is affected by
factors of the third reinforcing group, usually
biotic in origin, which eventually weaken the
trees and cause their death. According to
Manion (1991), the population history prior
to degradation is of primary importance, and
the factors that directly cause the degradation
and dieback of oak trees can vary with specific
growth conditions, and the type of factor is
not particularly important.
Subsequently, many models developed
for specific cases of forest degradation have
emerged. Thomas et al. (2002) proposed
their ‘Conceptual model of the interaction of
significant abiotic and biotic factors in the
onset of oak decline in Central Europe’. They
assumed that severe defoliation by insects for
at least two consecutive years and extreme
climatic conditions are the most significant
set of factors in oak decline. In fact, this model
Figure 2. The original ‘death spiral’ from Manion
(1991) describing biotic and abiotic factors leading
to plant mortality.
46 Plant Introduction • 103/104
Dragan et al.
echoes the second part of the four-factor
model of Sinclair & Hudler (1988).
Based on this model, Macháčová et al.
(2022) have proposed a model that summarises
the factors contributing to and provoking the
decline of oak forests. The model considers the
influence of abiotic factors that weaken oak
trees and the influence of biotic agents that
weaken oak stands. These include defoliators,
which cause light penetration into plantations
and thus affect microclimatic conditions in the
habitat. In addition, the weakening of trees,
according to Macháčová et al. (2022), also
occurs with improper maintenance. The tree
stand may shrink significantly when many trees
are removed, and crown transparency may be
altered. The trunks of the remaining trees are
immediately more exposed to sunlight, which
attracts stem insects that carry ophiostome
fungi, further contributing to oak tree death.
In Ukraine, Maurer & Pinchuk (2019)
introduced their concept of etiology and
pathogenesis of oak stand desiccation.
According to the order of action and specific
meanings, the authors describe three groups
of desiccation factors: circumstances of
weakening and risk factors of the disease;
etiofactors causing desiccation; and catalysts
of the tree and stand dieback. We believe that
Maurer & Pinchuk (2019) proposed a better
name for the first group of disturbing factors
– ‘circumstances of attenuation and disease
risk factors’ compared to the previously
applied (Sinclair, 1965; Manion, 1991) term
‘predisposition factors’. This approach allows
for a complete reconstruction of events and
considers the circumstances that triggered the
processes leading to the future destruction of
the plantations.
In general, the concept of Maurer & Pinchuk
(2019) is similar to Manion’s spiral model of
forest decline. Even in our incomplete review
of forest decline concepts and models, we
see that most decline models were described
based on already developed models,
popularized, and often adapted to specific,
local research conditions. For example,
Manion (1991) advanced and propagated the
third model of Sinclair & Hudler (1988) for
his particular purposes. The fourth model of
Sinclair & Hudler (1988)coincides with the
model of Mueller-Dombois (1992). The model
of Thomas et al. (2002) echoes the second
model of Sinclair & Hudler (1988). Analyzing
forest diseases, Ostry et al. (2011) suggest that
all models are similar and aim to illustrate
many different interacting factors.
Manion (2003) noted that the basic
principles of forest pathology are based on
experience that develops over time, and
the concepts of forest pathology are still
in dynamic evolutionary development. The
expertise gained provides the basis for new
concepts that may contradict traditionally
held beliefs. The author assumed that new
experiences could change his current concepts
as well. Ciesla & Donaubauer (1994) supported
the study of forest decline as much as possible,
advocating a better understanding of the
causes and dynamics of forest ecosystems
and introducing principles of appropriate
monitoring and management.
Most of the research on forest degradation
and the development of decline models has
focused on artificial forests. Some scientists
consider it necessary to extend the study
of weakening and dieback processes to
urban plantations. Houston (1987) suggested
that pests and diseases can be much more
important in urban environments than in
forests because of stresses that do not exist.
Bakys et al. (2009) warned that the weakening
and loss of urban tree plantings, natural
heritage trees, and trees of cultural value
can lead to severe environmental and social
consequences.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that
decline models can also be applied for natural
forests, particularly natural oak forests of
ancient parks. Natural oak forests of ancient
parks retain several criteria of old natural
forests, suffer from a set of negative factors
of global nature, are subject to significant
anthropogenic interference, and are subject
to extra recreational pressure. Klimenko (1999,
2014) emphasized the need to monitor and
study the processes of weakening of natural
plantations of ancient parks.
Оld oak forest is located on the territory of
the “Olexandria” State Dendrological Park of
the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.
This unique natural stand has preserved many
criteria of old natural forests (Boiko et al.,
2023) and is included in the State Register
of Scientific Objects, which constitutes the
national heritage of Ukraine. Most of the oaks
here are 220–250 years old, and some are
about 300 years old.
Plant Introduction • 103/104 47
The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2
The century-old natural oak forest,
the leading landscape of the Dendropark
“Оlexandria”, has always been the focus of
scientific research. Since the park’s foundation
in 1788, the oak forest has been exposed to
severe negative factors, leading to significant
disturbances in its structure and vitality
(Galkin, 2013). Haydamak (1987, 2006) was
the first who noted the varying degrees of
disturbance of different parts of the oak forest
in the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Subsequently,
areas of the oak forest with active degradation
processes in the technologically polluted
ecotopes of the western part of the oak
forest were identified (Dragan, 2013). The
search for the causes and directions of oak
forest degradation allowed us to identify
ecotones, transitional bands between oak
stands and artificial compositions within
the oak forest or stands and forest edges, as
a result of anthropogenic interference with
the integrity and structure of the oak forest
(Galkin & Dragan, 2013). Forest pathological
monitoring of old-growth oak stands (Dragan,
2019) showed the processes of decline in
different sites. These circumstances prompted
a detailed study of the causes and mechanisms
(models) of oak stand decline in different oak
stands in various parts of the oak forest in
the Dendropark “Оlexandria”, to compare the
purpose and strength of different disturbing
factors in oak stand decline.
Material and methods
The object of the study was the natural oak
forest of the Dendropark “Olexandria”. The
subject of the study was the models of oak
decline.
The decline of the oak forest was analyzed
according to the conceptual models of Houston
(1987), Manion (1991), Sinclair & Hudler (1988),
Thomas et al. (2002), and Macháčová et al.
(2022).
We considered oak decline, its dynamics,
and spatial structure as a generalized
degradation criterion. The amount of current
oak decline was calculated as the sum of dying
trees (IV vital status category), presence of
fresh deadwood (trees that have dried up in
the current and previous years; V vital status
category), fresh windfall, and windthrow and
expressed as a percentage of the total number
of oaks in the oak forest. The spatial structure
of drying was studied by mapping stumps.
The symptoms of decline were considered
following Manion (1991): growth inhibition,
shortening of internodes, root necrosis,
premature yellowing and falling of leaves,
dying of shoots and branches, thinning of the
crown and dry tops, increased prevalence and
pathogenicity of root rot fungi.
The vitality spectra of stands were analyzed
based on the distribution of trees by vital
state. The condition of individual stands was
assessed through the condition index, which
was calculated as a weighted average of the
data on the condition of individual trees in the
stand and according to the average condition
indices of the stands (Table 1; Voron et al.,
2011).
To assess the current condition of oak
trees as a result of long-term degradation
processes, we used the indicators that serve
as symptoms of decline according to Manion
(1991) and obtained during monitoring surveys:
crown thinning and dryness. To compare the
effects of decline in different oak woodland
sites, we determined the sanitary condition of
each oak tree and the resulting vitality spectra
and stand condition index. The vital state
of trees was determined using a six-grade
scale for assessing the condition of woody
plants adopted in forest pathology (Cabinet of
Ministers of Ukraine, 2016). The general tree
Condition index The degree of damage to the plantation The sanitary condition of the plantation
1.00–1.50 Absent Healthy
1.51–2.50 Weak Weakenings
2.51–3.50 Medium Severely weakened
3.51–4.50 Strong Drying out
5.51–6.00 Very strong Dead
Table 1. Scale for assessing the sanitary condition of plantations (Voron et al., 2011).
48 Plant Introduction • 103/104
Dragan et al.
condition was evaluated by the condition of its
crown (dryness, thinning, and openness) and
the presence of visible pathologies and signs
of hidden pathologies, which were determined
visually according to Meshkova et al. (2020).
Damage to oaks by vascular mycosis was
assessed by examining sections of dead trees,
performing a laboratory examination of wood
samples, and obtaining a forest pathologist’s
conclusion.
All anthropogenic origin factors and their
action duration were recorded according
to archival data and own research. Natural
features of the sites (mesorelief, etc.) and the
action of abiotic factors were also considered.
In this work, we assess the condition of oak
forest by the condition of the edifier species
(pedunculate oak) populations. The research
was conducted within the quarters into which
the park territory, including the oak forest, is
divided (Fig. 3). This contrasts with landscape-
taxation sections applied for previous research
by Haydamak (2006).
The idea behind this approach was that
the oak forest was a more or less continuous
massif in the past. As the park was developed,
the integrity of the oak forest was lost. Within
the neighborhoods, a complex landscape
and economic work were carried out, which
triggered different succession processes in
each neighborhood. The results of the detailed
survey in 2022 were taken as the current
state of the oak forest. The results of previous
monitoring surveys, realized in 2012 and 2017,
were also applied. Some indicators were taken
from the 2023 survey that is included in the
next monitoring period (2023–2027).
Large blocks in the central part of the
forest, for which specific disturbing factors
are unknown, or degradation processes with
established factors that occurred at a certain
time in the past, were separately analyzed.
Figure 3. Division of the Dendropark “Olexandria” territory into quarters (natural oak old-growth forest is
colored in green).
Plant Introduction • 103/104 49
The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2
The sanitary (vital) condition was
considered a complex criterion at the level
of individuals, groups of individuals, and tree
stands. Generalizing signs include the state of
the crown of trees, its dry tops, and thinning
(open spaces).
Dryness was assessed as a disease that
occurs due to stress due to the action of
abiotic and biotic factors, as well as hostile
human economic activity (Houston, 1981, 1992).
Results and discussion
Considering archival data and our research,
two groups of quarters with a representative
number of oaks, for which a complex of
negative factors and their terms of action
are known, were tentatively identified in the
oak forest of the Dendropark “Olexandria”
(Table 2).
The typical vitality spectrum for the western
part of the forest is in quarters 6, 19, and 25
(Fig. 3). There is a very low share of healthy
oaks in the I category – 2.9–5.9 % per quarter.
There is also a small number of trees in the II
category– 2.9–29.4 % (it reached 46.1 % in the
19th quarter because most of this quarter was
outside the limits of local pollution).
The number of dry and drying oaks in
most quarters was insignificant, but a clear
trend of their increase along the pond
cascade of the western stream was noted,
with the highest value in its lower part, in
quarter 25 (Table 3).
For the central part of the forest (quarters
8, 13, 14, and 15), typical vitality spectra were
characterized by the predominance of trees
of I–II categories of vital status (Table 3).
There was also a smaller number of severely
weakened trees (III category of vital status)
compared to the western part of the forest
Quarter Nr Area, ha Amount of
oak trees in
the quarter
(in 2022)
Negative factors
The western part of the forest
C
as
ca
de
p
on
ds
o
f
th
e
W
es
t B
an
k
6 9.0 323 Since the 1960s, there has been substantial local contamination of soils and
groundwater with a complex of phytotoxicant waste from the activities
of military facilities: oil products, heavy metals, and ammonium (Galkin &
Pleskach, 2016). In places of local pollution, there is a significant deterioration
of the state of oak plantations and the main loss of oak. A combination of flat
areas, deep ravines, and pond slopes of varying steepness characterizes the
entire territory.
19 4.9 180
25 1.0 34
The central part of the park, the disturbing factors are known
8 0.8 59 The main negative factor is anthropogenic intervention in the integrity and
structure of oak phytocoenoses during the park’s development. Large forest
edges with sparse vegetation were created within these quarters. Many
introduced species were planted around the perimeter of the preserved oak
stands, and new landscape compositions and avenues were created. This
started the process of ecotonization. Most of the dieback occurred in the
ecotones (common oak forest edges). The relief of the areas is flat.
14 6.3 217
The central part of the park
13 8.6 224 In the past, there was a significant focal loss of the oak tree and its companions,
including in the center of the quarter. The number and location of stumps of
different sizes and degrees of destruction evidences this. The oak losses do
not exceed the average for the oak forest. The topography of the site is flat.
Separate degradation factors have been established.
15 9.0 196 Along the perimeter of the plantation, individual introducers or their small
groups. A quarter with a complex fragmented mesorelief, a dense network
of unauthorized paths. In the past, cell dieback occurred, but the number
of stumps in the cells was negligible. Significant disturbing factors have not
been established.
Table 2. Model plots for the study of oak forest decay patterns in the Dendropark “Olexandria”.
50 Plant Introduction • 103/104
Dragan et al.
and for the anthropogenically transformed
quarters 8 and 14, where a large portion of
dried and drying trees is located.
According to the condition indices, the
studied areas belong to only two categories:
weakened (condition indices 1.51–2.5) or
strongly weakened (2.5–3.5) (Table 3); that is,
the condition indices overlap in stands with
different vitality spectra.
The analysis of vitality spectra allows us to
notice the trends of changes in the sanitary
state of plantations. The number of healthy
trees per quarter differs significantly (Table 3),
and during the research period, it decreased
differently. The decrease varied from 0 to 8
pieces in the western part of the park. (0–1 %).
In the central, anthropogenically degraded
part of the forest (quarters 8 and 14), the
decrease varied from 7 to 21 pieces (0.6–3.3 %).
In quarters 13 and 15, the number of healthy
trees decreased from 2–6 pieces (1.5–2.2 %).
In the western, technogenically polluted part
of the forest, the smallest number of healthy
trees was in local, technogenically polluted
ecotopes. However, with each stage of
surveys, an increase in the area of weakened
trees was noted, apparently due to the spread
of phytotoxins to the new areas.
In the anthropogenically transformed
quarters (8 and 14), as of 2022, most of the
weakened trees were located in ecotones.
Because these strips were significantly smaller
than the rest of the site, the main number of
oaks in the quarters mostly belonged to the I–
II categories of vital status. In quarters 13 and
15, trees of different vital status categories
were more or less evenly distributed.
The phenomenon of dry crowns of
oaks is widespread in the oak forest of the
Dendropark “Olexandria”, differing in different
growth areas and showing in the last period
of the survey (2018–2022) increase, in certain
quarters – in times (Table 4).
In the western part of the park, the number
of dry-top oaks increases in arithmetic
progression along the cascade of ponds – from
9.3 % at the top of the stream (quarter 6) to
16.7 % in its middle part (quarter 19) and up to
23.5 % – in its lower part (quarter 25). In quarter
6, most dry-top oaks are located in places of
local pollution. In most trees, up to a third of
the crown dried up, growing only a little over
the years (Table 4). There is a gradual, chronic
destruction of the oak crowns.
Since 2017, the number of dry-top oaks has
increased in quarter 13 (from 2.3 % to 14.3 %).
The number of oaks with the destruction of
various parts of their crown (less than a third,
more than a third, and the entire crown) has
increased (Table 4), which may precede an
increase in the oaks’ fall in the future years.
Since 2017, in quarter 8, the number of
dry-top trees has increased significantly –
from 1.2 % to 13.6 %. This mainly concerned
the trees with initial crown destruction. At
the same time, in quarter 14, where one of
the most extensive oak losses occurred, the
increase in the number of dry-top oaks was
slight (Table 4).
Thus, the last monitoring survey observed
a stable increase in dry tops (2017–2022). In
some quarters, it multiplied in times; the
increase was insignificant in others. This
did not always show consistency with other
indicators of the forest state, particularly the
presence of waste.
A relatively stable indicator of dry tops
of oaks in the western part of the park, with
Quarter Nr Amount of trees per vital status category, pcs. / % Plantation
condition index
I II II IV V
6 19 / 5.9 95 / 29.4 203 / 62.8 4 / 1.2 2 / 0.6 2.52
19 6 / 3.3 83 / 46.1 85 / 47.2 3 / 1.7 3 / 1.7 2.52
25 1 / 2.9 1 / 2.9 29 / 85.3 2 / 5.9 1 / 2.9 3.03
8 20 / 33.9 25 / 42.4 7 / 11.7 3 / 5.1 4 / 6.8 2.10
14 39 / 18.0 74 / 34.1 91 / 41.9 3 / 1.4 10 / 4.6 2.41
13 26 / 10.7 93 / 41.5 99 / 44.2 4 / 1.8 2 / 0.9 2.39
15 40 / 20.4 72 / 37.6 74 / 37.8 5 / 2.5 5 / 2.5 2.30
Table 3. Vitality spectra of oak trees of the Dendropark “Olexandria”.
Plant Introduction • 103/104 51
The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2
Quarter Nr Amount of dry-top trees, %
Less than 1/3 of the
crown is dried
Up to 2/3 of the crown
is dried
The entire crown is
dried up
Total of dry-top trees,
%
2008–
2012
2013–
2017
2018–
2022
2008–
2012
2013–
2017
2018–
2022
2008–
2012
2013–
2017
2018–
2022
2008–
2012
2013–
2017
2018–
2022
6 6.7 8.0 8.4 1.2 0.6 0.6 0.3 1/0.3 0.3 8.2 8.9 9.3
19 9.6 12.2 11.7 2.4 1.5 2.8 0 0 2.2 12.0 13.7 16.7
25 10.3 8.6 11.8 0 2.9 5.9 2.6 2.6 5.9 12.9 14.1 23.6
8 1.2 8.0 10.2 0 1.3 1.7 0 0 1.7 1.2 9.3 13.6
14 5.4 6.3 5.7 2.5 2.4 4.1 1.4 1.5 1.4 9.3 10.2 11.2
13 1.5 9.0 10.7 0.8 1.2 1.8 0 0.8 1.8 2.3 11.0 14.3
15 9.1 3.9 3.1 0.4 0.9 2.0 0 0 2.0 9.5 4.8 7.1
Table 4. State of the common oak crowns in the Dendropark “Olexandria”.
slight deviations in the direction of decrease
or increase, indicates a chronic reaction
of oaks to the action of disturbing factors
(technological pollution) with a particular
aggravation along the cascade of ponds. This is
in good agreement with the low fall of oaks in
this part of the forest.
The increase of dry-top oaks in quarters
8 and 13 correlates with the increase of
oaks’ dieback in these plots. The relatively
stable index of dry tops in quarter 14, which
is actively collapsing, may result from the
relatively rapid drying of healthy oaks with I–
II (III) vital status categories. In such a case,
the oaks do not have enough time to pass the
period of dry crowns. Among the reasons for
such trees death can be vascular necrosis,
evidenced by the destruction of the vascular
system (detected during the inspection of tree
sections), the site-focal nature of the drying
of trees, and damage by root phytopathogens.
Sometimes, other plants surrounding the oaks
also dry out.
It should also be taken into account that
during the previous periods of observation, the
number of dry-top trees in most quarters was
within 0.4–2.3 % (Table 4). In quarter 14, this
indicator was 9.1 %; this quarter’s destruction
process actively took place until 2017. At that
time and in the last survey period, dry-top
oaks were mainly limited to ecotones, while
acute drying occurred primarily in the central
part of the quarter.
The significant difference between the
quarters in terms of the number of drying and
dried-out oaks indicates that, at present, the
dieback indicators are the most generalizing
and correct characteristics, illustrating the
response of the oak forest to the long-term
effect of a complex of negative factors. We
initiated the oak decline monitoring in 2006.
Since that and until 2022, 486 oaks (23.7 %) fell
in the forest. During the five-year research
period in the frame of the monitoring program,
this number varied slightly. In 2006–2012, 196
oak trees were lost (9.2 %), in 2013–2017 – 124
trees (6.2 %), and in 2018–2022 – 166 trees
(8.3 %). Considering the dynamic ecological
processes in certain quarters, we included
the year 2023 in the waste study despite
already being included in the next 2023–2027
monitoring period.
There are areas where the minimum number
of oak trees fell during the 18 years of research
– 9.3 % (quarter 6), about a third (quarter 14), or
even more (quarter 8). However, in the rest of
the territory – in the western part of the park
and the control areas, the dieback percentage
was ca. 21–26 % (Table 5).
The decline was stable for every five-year
survey in the western part of the forest.
For example, quarter 6 lost 3.1–4.5 % (by
year) of all oaks, quarter 19 – 14.0–9.7 %, and
quarter 25 – 7.7–5.9 %. The same pattern was
observed in quarter 13 – 7.1–9.9 % and in the
quarter 15 – 7.6–7.7 %. In anthropogenically
transformed quarters, there was a constant
increase in oak dieback; quarter 8 lost 13.8–
26.7 %, and quarter 14 lost 7.7–21.2 % of oak
trees.
There was a territorial dependency of
oak dieback in different quarters. Before
52 Plant Introduction • 103/104
Dragan et al.
the research started and in 2006–2011, oak
dieback occurred mainly in ecotones (Fig. 4 A).
This pattern was maintained in the following
period (2012–2017), but individual oaks began
to fall in the central parts of quarters 13, 14, 15,
and 19. In the last five years, the degradation
processes from the ecotones spread to the
central parts of the quarters, forming centers
of oak dieback (Fig. 4 B).
Over the last five-year observation period,
the indicator of the current loss of oaks has
also increased significantly. This happened
mainly due to a sharp increase in the number
of trees in the IV vital status category (Fig. 5).
We can unequivocally confirm the highly
destructive consequences of interference
with the integrity and structure of natural
plantations. The consequences of such
interference are so fatal that they significantly
exceed the effects of extensive anthropogenic
pollution. We assume that before the onset of
negative factors, the areas in the western and
central parts of the oak forest were healthy,
as evidenced by the sanitary condition and
amount of dieback in these areas. That is,
we know the history of the sites before
degradation. In both groups of experimental
plots, the initiating factors were the weather
anomalies (i.e., droughts). Degradation of
oak stands in both experimental areas, in our
opinion, occurs according to Manion’s model
of forest decline (Manion, 1991).
There is no single quarter in the oak
forest of the Dendropark “Olexandria”, where
dieback or degradation did not occur. In two
of the investigated quarters (13 and 15) during
our observations, the dieback did not exceed
the average for the forest. But in quarter
13, during the forest pathology monitoring
and a phytopathological examination of
the forest in 2008, relatively fresh stumps
(up to 10–15 years old) and older stumps
(even almost destroyed) were found in the
near-alley zone and the central part of the
Quarter Nr Amount of oak trees, pcs. Decline of oak trees over 18 years
2006 2023 pcs. %
6 354 321 33 9.3
19 241 177 64 26.6
25 42 33 9 21.4
8 94 55 39 41.5
14 299 207 92 30.8
13 282 222 60 21.3
15 250 191 59 23.6
Table 5. The decline of trees in separate forest areas over 18 years (till the end of 2023) in the Dendropark
“Olexandria”.
BA
Figure 4. Spatial structure of the oak dieback in quarter 14 of the Dendropark “Olexandria”: A – in 2012,
B – in 2017.
Plant Introduction • 103/104 53
The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2
quarter (Fig. 6). In most cases, the state of
the stumps did not allow for determining
tree species, but differences in their size
suggest that these were different species. In
some groups, there were over ten stumps. At
least half of the stumps were approximately
the same age and aggregated in the largest
groups. This indicates that negative factors
were active in this area in the past, leading
to increased tree dieback.At this research
stage, we cannot reconstruct the past
decades and comprehensively explain the
cause of such extensive dieback. However,
according to archival data (Scientific bases…,
1978; Selection …, 1983), in the late 1970s and
early 1980s, the green oak tortrix (Tortrix
viridana Linnaeus, 1758) severely damaged
oak forests. These events were preceded and
accompanied by several years of drought
with high air temperatures. There are data
on the loss of oaks due to drought and
damage by green oak tortrix in that period:
in 1971 (control) – 9 oaks, in 1972 – 20, in 1973
– 41, in 1974 – 58, in 1975 – 53, in 1976 – 81, in
1977 – 41, and in 1978 – 26 (Scientific bases…,
1978). After the normalization of hydrological
and temperature regimes, the oak dieback
decreased significantly. The same report
indicated that other species-satellites of the
oaks also fell en masse at that time.
There is no mention regarding the number
of oak or other tree losses during the next
outbreak (the early 1980s), when the mass
reproduction of leaf-gnawing insects and
severe defoliation of oak forests occurred.
However, aviation methods of fighting
against pests were applied (Selection…, 1983).
According to the personal communication with
Dr. Grigoriy Dragan (who investigated these
outbreaks and carried out aviation measures to
combat Tortrix viridana), at that time, not only
did oaks fall, but also trees of other species. In
particular, he pointed out that common ash
trees (Fraxinus excelsior L.) died en masse due
to an outbreak of reproduction of the large ash
borer Hylesinus crenatus (Fabricius, 1787).
All these events could lead to the focal
dieback of trees of various species, to which,
over the years, the single fallout of the oak
tree and its satellite species continued to
join, which resulted in stump clusters in our
time. The final report also noted such local
loss of oaks in many forest areas (Scientific
bases…, 1978).
Thomas et al. (2002) consider strong
defoliation by insects for at least two
consecutive years and extreme climatic
conditions the most significant for the loss
of oaks. Therefore, we tend to explain the
death of oaks in the late 1970s and early 1980s
in many forest areas, including in quarter
13, by Thomas’s decline model (Thomas
et al., 2002). After that, the degradation of
forest plots took place, probably following
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
di
eb
ac
k,
%
Figure 5. The dynamics of the current decline in the number of oak trees in the age-old oak forest of the
Dendropark “Olexandria”.
54 Plant Introduction • 103/104
Dragan et al.
Macháčová’s model (Macháčová et al.,
2022). The action of defoliating insects on
oak stands weakened by drought led to the
thinning of the canopy and consequent
changes in the microclimatic conditions
of the forest stand. Before that, Clinton
et al. (1993) also wrote about the negative
role of light windows for oak forests during
drought. This further weakened the oaks and
made them non-resistant to dendrophilic
insects and fungal infections.
Archival data allow us to identify
additional factors of the weakening and
decline of oaks and their companions
in quarter 13 and other quarters in the
Dendropark “Olexandria”. Enormous damage
has been caused by cattle grazing organized
by the agricultural institute, which owned
the dendropark before its transfer to the
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
(Galkin, 2013). Considering the highly
negative consequences of cattle grazing
for forest plantations, it is considered in all
principal surveys (Volosyanchuk et al., 2017).
The cattle grazing stopped after the park
was transferred to the National Academy of
Sciences of Ukraine. The methods suitable
for artificial forest plantations began to be
applied – sanitary and landscape felling,
regulation of the canopy density, thinning of
undergrowth, etc. (Scientific bases…, 1978).
This, unequivocally changed the lighting and
affected the structure of the oak plantations.
At the end of the 1950s, a road was laid
through the forest to the branch of the
Institute of Hydrobiology located in the
western part of the dendropark. It ran
between quarter 13 and the northern border
of quarter 14, between quarters 19 and 20
(Scientific bases…, 1978). A sudden change in
illumination and the appearance of new forest
edges affected the stability of tree plantations
in these quarters. This triggered negative
processes of ecotonization, a change in the
herbaceous and shrub cover, and probably led
to an increased loss of trees, including oak. This
Figure 6. Presence and location of stumps of different ages of common oak and its companions in quarter
13 of the Dendropark “Olexandria” in 2008.
Plant Introduction • 103/104 55
The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2
series of events fell well under Macháčová’s
decline model (Macháčová et al., 2022). Similar
removal of many trees of valuable species for
government needs occurred during World
War II and in the 1920s (Galkin, 2013). This has
resulted in degradation processes in many
areas of the dendropark. However, the exact
place of tree removal was not specified and is
not known until now.
Over time, the mass loss of trees stopped,
and at the beginning of our research, the
loss of oak trees in quarters 13, 15, and 19 was
insignificant compared to quarters 8 and 14
and occurred mainly in the near-alley zones.
Our studies showed that, in some cases,
the decline processes can be non-linear.
When disruptive factors are stopped, the
rapid destruction of wood can slow down,
and further successional processes in wood
phytocoenoses proceed without severe
destruction of plantations. Ostry et al. (2011)
expressed the same scenario and pointed
out that forest dieback and decline are not
synonymic processes.
Long-term degradation processes following
a particular decline pattern may intensify with
a sharp change in negative factors. Using the
example of quarter 14, it can be shown that in
recent years, in the central, until now stable
part of the quarter, where the degradation
proceeded according to the Houston (1987)
model, focal acute drying of the oaks and
associated species began.
In pedunculate oak (Quercus robur L.),
the leading causes of death were vascular
desiccation and root rot; in Fraxinus excelsior
– dieback is mainly caused by halar necrosis
and root rot; in Acer platanoides L. – signs of
wilt with the death of the vascular system,
in Tilia cordata Mill. – fungal diseases and
root rot. In almost all cases, the symptoms of
drying were root rot, which may indicate the
presence of Armillaria ostoyae (Romagnesi)
Herink.
Such focal dieback significantly increased
the illumination of the remaining oaks, and the
degradation of the oak was included according
to Macháčová’s model (Macháčová et al., 2022).
In a specific plantation, even a relatively small
one, degradation (decline) can occur according
to various models. Considering decay patterns
in different forest areas, we should constantly
mention climatic factors. The role of climatic
anomalies as a universal driving factor of
decline is discussed in detail by Auclair et al.
(1992). Extreme climatic conditions, such as
rainfall deficit and high temperatures, are
often mentioned as causing oak mortality
(Allen et al., 2010; Sturrock et al., 2011).
Extreme and long-lasting droughts caused
an increase in oak loss throughout Europe
(Thomas et al., 2002; Macháčová et al., 2022).
The hydrological factor is present in all models
of forest decline. In some models, it plays the
role of an initiating factor that paves the way
for reinforcing factors – pests and diseases
(Manion, 1981). In other models, it acts as the
main predisposing factor. Many authors noted
the harmful synergism of pests and weather
anomalies (Shea & Chesson, 2002; Anderson
et al., 2004). Climatic conditions such as
temperature and precipitation can strongly
influence forest pathogen activity and disease
severity (Woods et al., 2005; Thomsen, 2009).
The role of abnormal climatic conditions
in the fall of oaks in the oak forest of the
Dendropark “Olexandria” in the late 1970s
and early 1980s, when the hydrological
regime and abnormal drought played the
role of the main factor, the susceptibility
factor, is visible. The climate was an initiating
factor in most logging areas for a long time.
In recent years, the propensity factor has
gained importance again.
Climatic anomalies of recent years have
affected the forest territory, but we observe
the most catastrophic consequences in
ecotones. The number of dry and drying
oaks, trees with thinned and perforated
crowns, and dry-top trees with secretions
typical for bacterial dropsy is many times
greater than in other areas. This again shows
how destructive human intervention in
natural habitats can be. The consequences
of such an intervention are so fatal that they
significantly exceed the effects of significant
anthropogenic pollution.
Until recently, the main destructive
processes in timber were concentrated in
ecotones. Ecotones are considered centers
of structural and functional restructuring
of ecosystems or phytocoenosis on the one
hand and the emergence of new boundary
conditions on the other (Tsaryk, 2003).
Ecotones of all levels have one common feature
– competitive relations between plant species
and their formations. In ecotones, there is an
increased fluctuating activity of environmental
56 Plant Introduction • 103/104
Dragan et al.
factors. Sharper fluctuations in the number
of pest populations are observed. Therefore,
outbreaks of mass reproduction of insects are
most often observed along the forest edges, in
the marginal zone (Bondarenko & Furdychko,
1993). Processes taking place in ecotones
carry the potential threat of profound and
rapid transformations of natural ecosystems
(Bondarenko & Furdychko, 1993). Disturbed
ecosystems are characterized by increased
reactivity to external influences, weakening
their stability. Such bands of violations tend
to spread spatially. As a result, the entire
landscape loses stability and is drawn into
the orbit of relatively rapid aggressive
transformations (Bobra, 2000).
Tsaryk (2003) considered the study of
ecotones in ecosystems transformed by
human activity to be one of the main problems
associated with the formation and functioning
of phytocoenoses. Our research certainly
contributes to this topic as the emergence
of ecotones is one of the most serious
consequences of anthropogenic intervention
in the natural oak forest in the Dendropark
“Olexandria”.
The increase in pathological phenomena
in many areas of the oak forest (dryness,
thinning of the crown, increased oak dieback,
change in the spatial structure of the dieback,
and the increase in the phenomena of acute
and focal loss of oaks) has been observed
since 2019. It is a consequence of periods
of precipitation instability and extensive
hot weather, resulting in a critical drop of
soil moisture in the root layer (Sylenko &
Morozova, 2021). The particularly harsh
climatic conditions observed in the growing
seasons of recent years will probably
result in another mass decline of both the
edificator species (pedunculate oak) and its
accompanying species in the oak forest.
This study of decline (degradation) patterns
is new for the old-growth forest of the
Dendropark “Olexandria”. Decline models
involve the study of cause-and-effect events,
the identification and assessment of the
impact of a complex of negative factors on oak
forest coenoses, and provide an opportunity
to forecast the state of the oak forest in the
future. Further research with a comprehensive
analysis of archival data, an in-depth study of
modern negative impacts on the oak forest,
and considering new threats will allow us to
identify new models of oak forest degradation
and forecast its state.
Conclusions
Thus, the conducted long-term monitoring
studies and analysis of archival data showed
that degradation processes are constantly
occurring in the territory of the old-growth
oak forest of the Dendropark “Olexandria”,
which have temporal and territorial
characteristics and different consequences,
explained by various models of forest
decline. The specificity of these processes is
determined by a complex of negative factors,
the duration and sequence of their action.
The most numerous was the anthropogenic
factor. Defoliating insects played an active
role among the biotic factors of a non-
anthropogenic nature. The climatic factor
played a significant role in the degradation
of oak forests. In some cases, it acted as
an initiating factor; in others, it was a
predisposing factor.
In a significant part of the oak forest,
degradation has been taking place for a long
time according to the conceptual model of
forest decline of Manion, with anthropogenic
predisposing factors – technogenic pollution
in the western part of the oak forest and
interference with the integrity and structure
in the central part. In the past, significant
processes of oak forest destruction took
place according to Thomas’s decline model.
The acting factors were climatic anomalies
and defoliating insects. In the future, the
destruction of oak forests in these areas will
probably occur according to Macháčová’s
model. According to the latter model, the
destruction of oak forests has begun in some
areas in our time. Without decisive stress
factors, degradation in different areas of the
oak forest has been taking place for a long
time following Houston’s model.
Even in such a small area as the oak
forest of the arboretum, various processes
of its degradation are observed, which is
explained by the active response of the oak
plantation to numerous disturbing factors.
Among them, the anthropogenic impact
was the most destructive for the oak forest.
Catastrophic consequences were caused by
interference with the structure and integrity
Plant Introduction • 103/104 57
The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2
of the oak forest. Areas of the oak forest,
which had significantly less anthropogenic
interference and, accordingly, preserved the
most significant number of signs of old natural
forests, although also degraded according
to the model of Manion, but the destruction
of the oak forest here proceeds very slowly,
with a slight loss of oaks. Under the influence
of anthropogenic factors, the decline process
was linear and had no reverse effect. Under the
influence of factors of a non-anthropogenic
nature, the destruction of the oak forest could
be stopped when the negative factors ceased
to act. Currently, degradation processes
in different areas of the oak forest have
significant differences but are well described
by mentioned models of forest decline.
New threats facing the oak forest –
aridization of the climate, the threat of
biological invasions, and new diseases, will
cause further degradation, diversifying the
paths of decline and their consequences in
different areas.
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60 Plant Introduction • 103/104
Dragan et al.
Діброва дендропарку “Олександрія”. Частина 2. Моделі занепаду діброви
Ніна Драган 1, *, Наталія Бойко 1, Наталія Дойко 1, Олександр Силенко 2, 1, Юрій Пидорич 1
1 Державний дендрологічний парк “Олександрія” НАН України, Біла Церква-13, Київська обл., Україна,
09113; * ninapark@ukr.net
2 Інститут еволюційної екології НАН України, вул. Академіка Лебедєва, 37, Київ, 03143, Україна
Наведено результати нових досліджень вікової природної діброви Державного дендрологічного
парку “Олександрія” НАН України. Комплекси негативних факторів на різних ділянках діброви
викликали різні моделі деградації. Епізодичні періоди занепаду у 1980-х роках унаслідок аномальних
кліматичних умов і дефоліації дубів ксилофагами пояснюються сучасною моделлю занепаду Томаса
з подальшим переходом на модель занепаду Махачової. На значній частині діброви тривалий
час, за відсутності погодних аномалій, занепад йшов за моделлю Х’юстона. Це був лінійний
процес, при якому здорові дерева послаблювалися дією випадкових негативних факторів, і гинули
внаслідок подальшої дії вторинних патогенів. Велика частина діброви руйнувалася тривалий час
згідно моделі занепаду Маніон. Ініціюючий фактор занепаду був антропогенним – техногенне
забруднення в західній частині діброви і втручання у її цілісність і будову в центральній частині.
Останнє виявилося найбільш згубним, викликало екотонізацію діброви з масовим відпадом дубів в
екотонах. Руйнування діброви внаслідок антропогенного втручання носило лінійний незворотній
характер. При дії чинників неантропогенного характеру руйнування діброви могло призупинятися
при припиненні дії негативних факторів. Сучасна аридизація клімату викликала значне погіршення
стану діброви, збільшила відпад дубів і урізноманітила моделі занепаду на її антропогенно
трансформованих ділянках.
Ключові слова: моделі занепаду, порушуючі фактори, фітосанітарний стан, відпад дубу, антропогенна трансформація,
техногенне забруднення, екотонізація, кліматичні аномалії
|
| id | oai:ojs2.plantintroduction.org:article-1650 |
| institution | Plant Introduction |
| keywords_txt_mv | keywords |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2025-07-17T12:54:25Z |
| publishDate | 2024 |
| publisher | M.M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden of the NAS of Ukraine |
| record_format | ojs |
| resource_txt_mv | wwwplantintroductionorg/bd/1304d8da75f078e3e697dfb2effa1abd.pdf |
| spelling | oai:ojs2.plantintroduction.org:article-16502025-02-12T12:22:44Z The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2. Models of forest decline Діброва дендропарку “Олександрія”. Частина 2. Моделі занепаду діброви Dragan, Nina Boiko, Nataliia Doiko, Nataliia Sylenko, Oleksandr Pydorich, Yuriy The results of new studies of the old natural forest of the “Оlexandria” State Dendrological Park of the National Academy of Science of Ukraine are presented. Complexes of negative factors in different forest areas caused different degradation models. Episodic decline in the 1980s due to abnormal climatic conditions and defoliation of oaks by xylophages are explained by Thomas’s model of decline with further interference with Macháčová’s model of decline. Without weather anomalies, the decline followed Houston’s model on a significant part of the timber for a long time. It was a linear process in which healthy trees weakened due to random negative factors and died as a result of the subsequent action of secondary pathogens. Most of the forest declined over a long time, according to Manion’s model. The initiating factor of decline was artificial, caused by anthropogenic pollution in the western part of the forest and interference with the integrity and structure in the central part. The latter was the most harmful for the forest, and it caused a strong ecotonization of the forest with a massive loss of oaks in the ecotones. The destruction of timber due to anthropogenic intervention was linear and irreversible. Under the action of factors of a non-anthropogenic nature, the destruction of the forest could be suspended if the action of adverse factors could be terminated. The modern aridization of the climate caused a significant deterioration of the oak forest, increased the loss of oak trees, and varied the patterns of decline in its anthropogenically transformed areas. Наведено результати нових досліджень вікової природної діброви Державного дендрологічного парку “Олександрія” НАН України. Комплекси негативних факторів на різних ділянках діброви викликали різні моделі деградації. Епізодичні періоди занепаду у 1980-х роках унаслідок аномальних кліматичних умов і дефоліації дубів ксилофагами пояснюються сучасною моделлю занепаду Томаса з подальшим переходом на модель занепаду Махачової. На значній частині діброви тривалий час, за відсутності погодних аномалій, занепад йшов за моделлю Х’юстона. Це був лінійний процес, при якому здорові дерева послаблювалися дією випадкових негативних факторів, і гинули внаслідок подальшої дії вторинних патогенів. Велика частина діброви руйнувалася тривалий час згідно моделі занепаду Маніон. Ініціюючий фактор занепаду був антропогенним – техногенне забруднення в західній частині діброви і втручання у її цілісність і будову в центральній частині. Останнє виявилося найбільш згубним, викликало екотонізацію діброви з масовим відпадом дубів в екотонах. Руйнування діброви внаслідок антропогенного втручання носило лінійний незворотній характер. При дії чинників неантропогенного характеру руйнування діброви могло призупинятися при припиненні дії негативних факторів. Сучасна аридизація клімату викликала значне погіршення стану діброви, збільшила відпад дубів і урізноманітила моделі занепаду на її антропогенно трансформованих ділянках. M.M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden of the NAS of Ukraine 2024-12-29 Article Article application/pdf https://www.plantintroduction.org/index.php/pi/article/view/1650 10.46341/PI2024009 Plant Introduction; No 103/104 (2024); 43-60 Інтродукція Рослин; № 103/104 (2024); 43-60 2663-290X 1605-6574 10.46341/PI103-104 en https://www.plantintroduction.org/index.php/pi/article/view/1650/1558 Copyright (c) 2024 Nina Dragan, Nataliia Boiko, Nataliia Doiko, Oleksandr Sylenko, Yuriy Pydorich http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 |
| spellingShingle | Dragan, Nina Boiko, Nataliia Doiko, Nataliia Sylenko, Oleksandr Pydorich, Yuriy Діброва дендропарку “Олександрія”. Частина 2. Моделі занепаду діброви |
| title | Діброва дендропарку “Олександрія”. Частина 2. Моделі занепаду діброви |
| title_alt | The oak forest of the Dendropark “Оlexandria”. Part 2. Models of forest decline |
| title_full | Діброва дендропарку “Олександрія”. Частина 2. Моделі занепаду діброви |
| title_fullStr | Діброва дендропарку “Олександрія”. Частина 2. Моделі занепаду діброви |
| title_full_unstemmed | Діброва дендропарку “Олександрія”. Частина 2. Моделі занепаду діброви |
| title_short | Діброва дендропарку “Олександрія”. Частина 2. Моделі занепаду діброви |
| title_sort | діброва дендропарку “олександрія”. частина 2. моделі занепаду діброви |
| url | https://www.plantintroduction.org/index.php/pi/article/view/1650 |
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