Біотехнологія у квітникарстві
Genetic modification techniques are now well established in agriculture (Brooks and Barfoot, 2009; James, 2010). The same extensive commercial application of genetic modification has not been seen in horticulture and floriculture, with the exception of the development of cut flower crops modified fo...
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| description | Genetic modification techniques are now well established in agriculture (Brooks and Barfoot, 2009; James, 2010). The same extensive commercial application of genetic modification has not been seen in horticulture and floriculture, with the exception of the development of cut flower crops modified for novel flower colour. In this paper a review is provided of the potential applications of genetic modification in floriculture, illustrated with the example of the production of delphinidin-related anthocyanins in flowers of transgenic carnation and rose. Possible reasons for the lack of commercialisation of transgenic floricultural species are discussed. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.5281/zenodo.2553626 |
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90 ISSN 1605-6574. Інтродукція рослин, 2010, № 1
УДК 577.21: 57.05
STEPHEN F. CHANDLER
Florigene Pty. Ltd., 1 Park Drive, Bundoora, VIC 3083, Australia
BIOTECHNOLOGY IN FLORICULTURE
Genetic modification techniques are now well established in agriculture (Brooks and Barfoot, 2009; James, 2010). The same
extensive commercial application of genetic modification has not been seen in horticulture and floriculture, with the excep-
tion of the development of cut flower crops modified for novel flower colour.
In this paper a review is provided of the potential applications of genetic modification in floriculture, illustrated with
the example of the production of delphinidin-related anthocyanins in flowers of transgenic carnation and rose. Possible
reasons for the lack of commercialisation of transgenic floricultural species are discussed.
© STEPHEN F. CHANDLER, 2010
Introduction
Europeans are the largest consumers of cut
flowers in the world. Though North America,
Japan and, increasingly, China are major
markets, Europe is by far the biggest. Europe
has an excellent logistics system for the dis-
tribution of cut flowers, allowing flowers
that are imported on a daily basis from Afri-
ca, Colombia, Ecuador, India and many other
countries to be shipped throughout Europe.
To the East, the major cities of Russia,
Ukraine and Belarus are also destinations for
flowers from Europe, trucked from the auc-
tions of the Netherlands, or flown in directly
from producers around the world, but par-
ticularly from Colombia and Ecuador.
In the floriculture industry, novelty is of
critical importance to breeders. In rose, for
example, there are hundreds of different va-
rieties available to growers, in a whole range
of flower colours and types. For breeders, the
ability to bring out new distinct varieties
provides both a marketing opportunity and a
possibility to take an increased market share.
For consumers, new varieties provide a wid-
er choice. Until the development of genetic
modification methods, breeders were con-
strained by the natural gene pool of a species
and the extent to which mutation breeder
and/or inter-specific hybridisation methods
could be used to expand this natural gene
pool. With the advent of genetic modification
techniques much wider possibilities have
now become available.
1. The potential applications
of genetic modification in floriculture
1.1. Transformation
Many major floriculture crops can now be
transformed, as summarised in Table 1 and
reviewed by Shibata (2008). This includes
the important cut flower crops rose and car-
nation and the pot plants begonia and cycla-
men (table 1).
1.2. Potential target traits for genetic
modification
It is still the case that in agricultural crops
commercial varieties are largely insect re-
sistance or tolerance and herbicide resist-
ance. Varieties with modified secondary me-
tabolism are now being developed also [59].
Herbicide resistance is of less value than in-
sect resistance in floriculture where thrips,
aphids and spider mites are the biggest prob-
lems, especially for exporters of cur flowers
(most plant health inspection agencies re-
quire imports to be free of even dead insects).
Control of these insect pests by genetic ma-
nipulation is not yet feasible.
At the consumer level, herbicide resistant
bedding plants might be of some value in a land-
scaping situation, as might the development
of herbicide resistant grasses for lawns [40].
91ISSN 1605-6574. Інтродукція рослин, 2010, № 1
Biotechnology in floriculture
In flowers the second most important trait
to producers that could be modified, after in-
sect resistance, is the control of fungal dis-
ease. There have been efforts to engineer
pathogen resistance in some floricultural
crops [19, 36, 43, 46, 55, 61] but as yet geneti-
cally modified commercial varieties are not
available.
For growers, characteristics relating to
quality and productivity, which are not yet
amenable to genetic modification, are also
very important, as these affect the cost of
production and so revenue. However, genes
which affect such traits are becoming avail-
able and a have been shown to produce po-
tentially useful phenotypes [13, 54].
As outlined before, novelty is extremely
important in floriculture and the most obvi-
ous form of novelty to the consumer will be
in plant or flower shape, architecture and
size, and the form and colour of the flowers
and foliage. Modification of scent is now pos-
sible [24, 42] but it is modification of flower
colour that is most advanced, in terms of
generating commercially useful varieties.
2. Flower colour modification in rose and
carnation
2.1. Anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway
Flower colour is primarily due to the presence
of anthocyanins and carotenoids. Yellow and
orange flowers normally contain carotenoids.
The anthocyanins pelargonidin, cyanidin and
delphinidin 3-glucosides are coloured pig-
ments, responsible for pink, mauve, red and
blue shades of flowers. Flowers that produce
delphinidin-based pigments generally have a
violet-blue shade. The anthocyanin biosyn-
thesis pathway is an intermediate of the phe-
nylpropanoid pathway and an early critical
enzyme is chalcone synthase, which catalyses
the biosynthesis of 4,2', 4', 6'-tetrahydroxy-
chalcone. This compound is converted to nar-
ingenin by the enzyme chalcone isomerase
and naringenin is subsequently converted to
the dihydroflavonol dihydrokaempferol
(DHK) by the enzyme flavanone 3-hydroxy-
Table 1. Transformation of floricultural crops
Species Reference
Begonia semperflorens Hoshi et al., 2003
Begonia tuberhybrida Kiyokawa et al., 2001
Cyclamen persicum Aida et al., 1999
Boase et al., 2002
Cymbidium Yang et al., 1999
Petunia hybrida Horsch et al., 1985
Pelargonium,geranium Bi et.al., 1999
Boase et.al, 2004
Phalaenopsis Belarmino and Mii, 2000
Saintpaulia ionantha Mercuri et al., 2000
Kushikawa et al., 2001
Torenia hybrida Suzuki et al., 2000
Verbena × hybrida Tamura et al., 2002
Alstroemeria Akutsu et al., 2004
Antirrhinum Cui et al., 2004
Carnation Lu et al., 1991
Firoozabady et al., 1995
van altvorst et al., 1996
Chrysanthemum Lemieux et al., 1990
de Jong et al., 1995
Sherman et al.,1998a
Dendrobium Kuehule and Sugii, 1992
Men et al., 2003
Gerbera hybrida Orlikowska and Nowak,
1997
Nagaraju et al., 1998
Gladiolus Kamo et al., 1995
Lisianthus Deroles et al., 1995
Ledger et al., 1997
Lilium Ahn et al., 2004
Hoshi et al., 2004
Rosa hybrida Soug et al., 1996
van der Salm et al., 1997
Kim et al., 2004
lase. DHK can then be hydroxylated at the 3'
position by the enzyme flavonoid 3' hydroxy-
lase (F3'H) to produce dihydroquercetin
(DHQ), or at both the 3' and 5' positions by the
enzyme flavonoid 3',5' hydroxylase (F3'5'H) to
produce dihydromyricetin (DHM). In the gen-
eral horticultural and scientific literature fla-
vonoid 3' hydroxylase is sometimes called the
"red ge ne" and flavonoid 3',5' hydroxylase the
"blue gene".
92 ISSN 1605-6574. Інтродукція рослин, 2010, № 1
Stephen F. Chandler
The colourless dihydroflavonols (DHK,
DHM or DHQ) are then subsequently con-
verted to the coloured anthocyanins by the
enzymes dihydroflavonol — 4-reductase
(DFR), anthocyanidin synthase and flavo-
noid-3 glucosyltransferase, with DHK be-
ing converted to the brick-red pelargoni-
din-based pigments, DHQ being converted
to the red cyanidin-based pigments and
DHM being converted to the purple-blue
delphinidin-based pigments. The activity
of the "blue gene" (flavonoid 3'5') is there-
fore necessary for biosynthesis of the del-
phinidin-based anthocyanins responsible
for mauve, violet or blue flowers. F3'5'H
does not occur in many of the major cut-
flowers normally, as the gene encoding the
F3'5'H enzyme is not present. Examples are
carnation, rose, chrysanthemum and ger-
bera.
Flower colour modification has been
achieved experimentally in a number of
flower crops, and has included phenotypic
changes caused by down-regulation of the
anthocyanins pathway. Papers describing
flower colour modification are summarised
in Table 2. Recent reviews covering the same
subject include Gutterson (1995), Tsuda et al.
(2004), Tanaka (2006), Tanaka et al. (2008),
Tanaka and Chandler (2009) and Yoshida et
al. (2009).
2.2. Flower colour modification in carnation
The colour-modified carnation varieties that
have been developed by Florigene, in collabora-
tion with Suntory Limited are the only geneti-
cally modified flowers sold commercially any-
where in the world. The genetically modified
"Moon" series carnation varieties produce
mauve, purple or violet flowers, and can be seen
at the Florigene website (www.florigene.com).
These varieties were developed by an Agrobac-
terium-based transformation method [44] from
carnation varieties that produced white or
cream flowers. The genetic modification has re-
sulted in the expression of F3'5'H genes in spe-
cific, white cultivars of carnation. These white
cultivars were selected on the basis of lack of ac-
tivity of both flavonoid 3'-hydroxylase and di-
hydroflavonol reductase but with the rest of the
anthocyanin pathway intact. Expression of the
flavonoid 3'5' hydroxylase gene results in the
production of the dihydroflavonol dihydro-
myricetin. Addition of a petunia DFR (which
has a higher specificity for DHM over DHQ and
cannot utilise DHK), ensures that only delphini-
din-based pigments are produced in the petals.
Because delphinidin-based pigments are not
found in carnations naturally, the flowers from
the genetically modified plants are a unique
colour due to the novel production of delphini-
din-based anthocyanins in the flowers of trans-
genic plants [26, 27, 49, 65].
Table 2. Flower colour modification in flower crops using genetic modification
Species Modification Reference
Chrysanthemum Down regulation of chalcone synthase to produce non-pig-
mented flowers
Courtney-Gutterson et al.,
1994
Petunia Production of yellow flowers Davies et al., 1998
Lisianthus Down regulation of chalcone synthase to produce sectorial
non-pigmented flowers
Deroles et al., 1995
Gerbera Down regulation of chalcone synthase to produce non-
pigmented flowers
Elomaa et al., 1993
Rose Production of delphinidin-related anthocyanins to change
flower colour
Katsumoto et al., 2007
Torenia Down regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis to produce
non-pigmented flowers
Nakamura et al., 2006
93ISSN 1605-6574. Інтродукція рослин, 2010, № 1
Biotechnology in floriculture
Flowers are grown in Ecuador and Colom-
bia for distribution to the USA, Canada, Ja-
pan and the EU [44]. So far, ten different
commercial varieties of carnation have been
developed using this strategy.
2.3. Flower colour modification in rose
The transgenic rose variety "Applause" was
released in Japan, late in 2009 (http://www.
suntory.co.jp/flower). This transgenic va rie-
ty has lavender-shaded, novel coloured
flowers. The variety is grown in Japan but it
is expected that production will commence
in Colombia in the near future, for the US
market.
Expression of the pansy (Viola spp) F3'5'H
(flavonoid 3'5'-dihydroxylase) gene in rose
resulted in a significant amount of delphini-
din-related anthocyanin accumulation in
flowers of the transgenic plants [10]. Expres-
sion of the pansy F3'5'H genes in several
transgenic lines produced flowers in which
delphinidin accounted for up to 95 % of the
total anthocyanidin [33].
3. Barriers to commercialisation
Even though genetic modification can be
used to create novel varieties in floriculture,
there have, with the exception of the carna-
tion and rose cultivars mentioned above,
been few practical applications of this new
technology. The reason for this lack of ex-
ploitation is that the commercialization of a
transgenic plant product is far more complex
than that for a conventionally bred plant
product [11, 12]. As a result there are consid-
erable additional development and regula-
tory compliance costs. These additional costs
are a barrier to commercialisation for the
minor crops, where the market may be very
small, and because of the need to apply for
regulatory approval on a country by country
basis it is sometimes not possible to consider
a global marketing strategy for a product.
3.1. The costs of development
Many floricultural species are vegetatively
propagated, which means that to produce a
range of colours in a particular species — for
example if one was to be targeting insect re-
sistance- would require a large number of
transformation experiments, unless a breed-
ing line was transformed. In the latter case
there would need to be consideration of the
longer term requirement for introgression of
the gene of interest into a range of commer-
cial cultivars. The transformation process it-
self may be expensive to develop, because
not all varieties have an equal susceptibility
to infection with Agrobacterium and not all
varieties are easy to regenerate.
Transgenic lines which have the desired
phenotype must be trialled carefully to make
sure the key commercially valuable charac-
teristics of the parental variety, for example
disease resistance and productivity, have
been retained. It is also necessary to make
sure phenotypic expression of the transgene
is stable. The necessity for molecular analy-
sis for regulatory compliance is a major ad-
ditional cost, as will be discussed below.
Freedom to operate issues for transgenic
plant products introduces costs that are not
usually incurred by conventional breeders.
Components of a transgenic plant that are
protected could be the transformation meth-
od, promoter and terminator sequences, se-
lectable marker genes, transformation vec-
tor components and the genes introduced for
phenotype modification. The parental varie-
ty may be protected by plant breeders rights
and if so the transgenic plants derived from
the variety may be considered essentially
derived [12]. In that case the original breeder
may have to be consulted prior to commer-
cialisation.
3.2. The costs of regulatory compliance
Regulation of genetically modified plants has
been imposed by nearly all countries, and
exists for all the key flower producing and
consuming countries. These regulations typi-
cally impose strict confinement to GM plants
during trial stages, restricting the ability to
trial a genetically modified plant in multiple
94 ISSN 1605-6574. Інтродукція рослин, 2010, № 1
Stephen F. Chandler
environments. For a cut flower product this
may be a redundant requirement, as the
product is likely to be grown in greenhouse
and/or covered conditions in most countries
in which it is produced.
In other countries the product may not be
grown at all, and only imported as a final
product — the cut flower. Four major regu-
latory issues to consider are:
1. In some cases, the cost of regulation
makes entry to market in small countries
prohibitively expensive, even when there
are customers that want the product. This is
because of costs associated with the need for
translation, multiple copies of written mate-
rials (including copies of all cited papers in
some cases) local hearings, fees and travel.
2. In the case of cut flowers destined for
import only not all countries require a field
trial as part of the regulatory process. This is
a very sensible approach, given the risk of
gene flow is inherently higher at the places
of production, where the products will have
already been approved. However, in some
countries there is a need to carry out coun-
try-specific field trials for products which
have been grown and sold commercially for
many years elsewhere. For a vegetatively
propagated greenhouse grown crop it is not
clear how the additional data improves the
risk assessment process. The trade problems
posed by asynchronous approval of globally
traded GMOs have been recently reviewed
by Stein and Rodriguez-Cerezo (2009).
3. Some legislation requires the genera-
tion of insert(s) and flanking genome se-
quence and molecular based unique identifi-
cation protocols [20]. Generation of this data
is a very difficult and expensive exercise,
and cn not always be accomplished. In non-
food crops particularly, is a relatively small
component of the risk assessment.
4. Assessment on an event-by-event ba-
sis is required in most countries, even
though those events may be very similar,
and issues such as the probability of gene
flow [21, 53] are generic to the species in
question. For example, our transgenic car-
nation product pipeline develops new varie-
ties of transgenic carnation using essentially
the same genes (including the same selecta-
ble marker) generating essentially the same
phenotype (production of delphinidin-re-
lated anthocyanins). What largely differs
between transgenic events is the parent va-
riety and the flower colour shade produced.
Table 3. Typical datasets required for genetically modified plant products
Dataset Examples of data required
Quantitative comparison to parental
variety used for transformation
Morphological characteristics, growth form and production cha rac-
teristics, evaluation of potential for gene flow [71, 72]
Biology of the plant and history of safe
use
Comprehensive literature review of reproductive biology, history of
use, current use and geographic distribution
Characterization of the altered phe no-
type
Level of expression, quantifiable measurements of the novel phe no-
type
Evaluation of potential harmful effects Bioassay of plant and soil extracts, toxicity evaluations, animal feeding
test
Molecular characterization Description of origin and function of all genetic elements, southern
analysis with several probes, complete sequence of transformation
vector, northern analysis, PCR based tools allowing identification of
individual lines, comparison to nucleotide and amino acid sequence
databases
95ISSN 1605-6574. Інтродукція рослин, 2010, № 1
Biotechnology in floriculture
The comparator trials routinely carried out
on a small scale are used to identify lines
which are as close to similar to the parent
line as possible, aside from flower colour.
However, under the current system it is
necessary to produce data packages for
every new variety which results in a large
allocation of resources to generate applica-
tions that are largely identical to previous
submissions.
Transgenic plants are subject to more
regulatory oversight than non-transgenic
plants and it is necessary to collect signifi-
cant data sets for potential transgenic
plants. The content of these datasets are
summarized in Table 3. Further informa-
tion, specific to the release of transgenic
carnation, is provided in Terdich and Chand-
ler (2009).
Conclusions
Genetic modification of an ornamental plant
can be a successful venture, from both a sci-
entific and a commercial perspective. The
"Moon" series of colour modified carnations
have been sold now for nearly a decade and
tens of millions of flowers have entered the
traditional growing, distribution and retail
chains for cut-flowers. There is no reason to
think transgenic rose flowers will not be
equally as readily accepted in the market-
place. To date there has been no negative re-
sponse from consumers to genetically modi-
fied flowers. The transgenic varieties have
proven to be genetically very stable during
mass scale vegetative propagation and there
have been no unexpected effects on either
the environment or on the health of those
handling the flowers.
The major obstacle to dozens of other ge-
netically modified ornamental products en-
tering the marketplace is largely in the bar-
riers that the regulatory systems in many
parts of the world place on the freedom to
trial and develop GM varieties of ornamen-
tals (refer to commentary in [8]). As is the
case for cut-flowers, ornamental products
are often an internationally traded commod-
ity and until there is an internationally
agreed system for regulating genetically
modified plant products it will continue to
prove very difficult to release ornamental
products, due to the costs and expertise re-
quired for commercial development. To ease
this burden the regulatory requirements for
non-food varieties, such as ornamentals,
should be reduced.
Acknowledgements
The comments of this article are the per-
sonal views of the author and not those of In-
ternational Flower Developments Inc., Sun-
tory Holdings Limited or Florigene Limited.
Acknowledgement to Suntory Holdings
Limited.
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Recommended to publication by B. O. Levenko
С.Ф. Чэндлер
Флориген Ltd., Австралия, Бундоора
БИОТЕХНОЛОГИЯ В ЦВЕТОВОДСТВЕ
Методы генетических модификаций в настоящее
время широко используют в сельском хозяйстве.
Такого экстенсивного коммерческого использо-
вания генетических модификаций не наблюдает-
ся в садоводстве и цветоводстве, за исключением
получения цветочных растений для срезки с
модифицированной окраской цветков. В обзоре
пред ставлены данные относительно возможного
применения генетических модификаций в цвето-
водстве, проиллюстрированные примерами по-
лучения трансгенных растений гвоздики и розы
с генами дельфинидина. Обсуждаются возмож-
ные причины отсутствия коммерциализации
трансгенных видов цветочных растений.
С.Ф. Чендлер
Флоріген Ltd, Австралія, Бундоора
БІОТЕХНОЛОГІЯ У КВІТНИКАРСТВІ
Методи генетичних модифікацій у наш час широко
використовують у сільському господарстві. Такого
екстенсивного комерційного використання гене-
тичних модифікацій не спостерігається в садівни-
цтві та квітникарстві, за винятком отримання квіт-
кових рослин для зрізування з модифікованим
забарвленням квіток. В огляді наведено дані щодо
можливого застосування генетичних модифікацій у
квітникарстві, проілюстровані прикладами отри-
мання трансгенних рослин гвоздики та троянди з
генами дельфінідину. Обговорюються можливі при-
чини відсутності комерціалізації трансгенних видів
квіткових рослин.
|
| id | oai:ojs2.plantintroduction.org:article-607 |
| institution | Plant Introduction |
| keywords_txt_mv | keywords |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2025-07-17T12:44:09Z |
| publishDate | 2010 |
| publisher | M.M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden of the NAS of Ukraine |
| record_format | ojs |
| resource_txt_mv | wwwplantintroductionorg/ac/3df5cce52ebeca507c561560ca3b1dac.pdf |
| spelling | oai:ojs2.plantintroduction.org:article-6072019-12-09T15:22:02Z Biotechnology in floriculture Біотехнологія у квітникарстві Chandler, S.F. Genetic modification techniques are now well established in agriculture (Brooks and Barfoot, 2009; James, 2010). The same extensive commercial application of genetic modification has not been seen in horticulture and floriculture, with the exception of the development of cut flower crops modified for novel flower colour. In this paper a review is provided of the potential applications of genetic modification in floriculture, illustrated with the example of the production of delphinidin-related anthocyanins in flowers of transgenic carnation and rose. Possible reasons for the lack of commercialisation of transgenic floricultural species are discussed. Методи генетичних модифікацій у наш час широко використовують у сільському господарстві. Такого екстенсивного комерційного використання генетичних модифікацій не спостерігається в садівництві та квітникарстві, за винятком отримання квіткових рослин для зрізування з модифікованим забарвленням квіток. В огляді наведено дані щодо можливого застосування генетичних модифікацій у квітникарстві, проілюстровані прикладами отримання трансгенних рослин гвоздики та троянди з генами дельфінідину. Обговорюються можливі причини відсутності комерціалізації трансгенних видів квіткових рослин. M.M. Gryshko National Botanical Garden of the NAS of Ukraine 2010-03-01 Article Article application/pdf https://www.plantintroduction.org/index.php/pi/article/view/607 10.5281/zenodo.2553626 Plant Introduction; Vol 45 (2010); 90-98 Інтродукція Рослин; Том 45 (2010); 90-98 2663-290X 1605-6574 10.5281/zenodo.3377783 en https://www.plantintroduction.org/index.php/pi/article/view/607/577 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 |
| spellingShingle | Chandler, S.F. Біотехнологія у квітникарстві |
| title | Біотехнологія у квітникарстві |
| title_alt | Biotechnology in floriculture |
| title_full | Біотехнологія у квітникарстві |
| title_fullStr | Біотехнологія у квітникарстві |
| title_full_unstemmed | Біотехнологія у квітникарстві |
| title_short | Біотехнологія у квітникарстві |
| title_sort | біотехнологія у квітникарстві |
| url | https://www.plantintroduction.org/index.php/pi/article/view/607 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT chandlersf biotechnologyinfloriculture AT chandlersf bíotehnologíâukvítnikarství |