Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system
An overview of the trends in the development of electric transport in European countries is presented, including the state and tax policy of supporting electric transport owners, the dynamics of the growth of the European fleet of electric vehicles, the development of charging infrastructure and the...
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General Energy Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
2022
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| author | Kostenko, Ganna |
| author_facet | Kostenko, Ganna |
| author_institution_txt_mv | [
{
"author": "Ganna Kostenko",
"institution": null
}
] |
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| description | An overview of the trends in the development of electric transport in European countries is presented, including the state and tax policy of supporting electric transport owners, the dynamics of the growth of the European fleet of electric vehicles, the development of charging infrastructure and the main principles of the interaction between electric vehicles and power system. The experience of countries that have successfully developed electric transport was reviewed, and it was found that the demand for electric cars mostly depends on the price of electric cars for the end user, infrastructure development and government incentive programs. The review also showed that, in practice, the wide spread of electric vehicles should occur simultaneously with the development of the corresponding infrastructure, as well as the development of systems for their interaction with the energy system and compliance with global environmental standards. The growing number of electric vehicles certainly requires special attention from network and power system operators, because the appearance of charging stations of various manufactures and capacities, installed in residential areas, private and apartment buildings, can lead to the number of problems, the emergence of which is associated with electromagnetic compatibility, overloading of electric cables and distribution transformers, safety of operation, that as a result can negatively affect the reliability and quality of power supply. There is also the potential risk that with a certain number of EVs, there will not be enough existing generation capacity and capacity of the electricity grid to charge EV batteries. The analysis of the principles of interaction between electric vehicles and power system in Europe showed that they are based on the concept of Smart Grid - smart or intelligent power supply networks, by means of which the electric vehicle charging system can be managed by the energy supplying company in order to solve a number of energy system tasks: increasing the efficiency of network infrastructure using, peak load shift and the development of smart grid infrastructure. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.15407/srenergy2022.01.062 |
| first_indexed | 2026-03-24T02:02:16Z |
| format | Article |
| fulltext |
62
G. KOSTENKO
ISSN 2786-7102 (Online). Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2022. 1(70)
ЕКОЛОГІЧНІ, ЕКОНОМІЧНІ ТА ПРАВОВІ ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ
В ЕНЕРГЕТИЦІ, ЕНЕРГЕТИЧНИЙ МЕНЕДЖМЕНТ
ISSN 2786-7102 (Online). System Research in Energy. 2022. 1(70): 62–71
doi: https://doi.org/10.15407/srenergy2022.01.062
1. Introduction
In order to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere, the problem of decarboniza-
tion of the sectors of the economy with the largest
emissions of pollutants is increasingly relevant for
Europe. In recent years, the transport and energy
sectors have been the biggest polluters of the en-
vironment in the EU. Thus, according to Europe-
an Environment Agency data on greenhouse gas
emissions in 2020, the share of the energy sector
was 13% of the total emissions, the share of private
transport was 11%, and the share of communal and
commercial transport was about 6.5% [1]. In order
to reduce the negative impact of motor vehicles on
the environment, as well as to reduce the use of fos-
sil fuels, in many European countries, the imple-
mentation of programs for the mass electrifi cation
of transport has begun. Naturally, with the growth
of the share of electric transport in the total fl eet of
vehicles, the consumption of electricity, necessary
for charging batteries of electric transport, increases
signifi cantly. At the same time, the process of unreg-
ulated charging of electric vehicles can cause seri-
ous problems in the distribution network and in the
energy system as a whole.
The purpose of this work is a comprehensive
study of the current state, main trends and prospects
for the development of electric transport in Europe,
a comprehensive analysis of the impact of the elec-
tric transport charging process on the operation of
UDC 621.311:621.33 Ganna Kostenko, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8839-7633
Institute of General Energy of NAS of Ukraine, 172, Antonovych Str., 03150, Kyiv, Ukraine;
e-mail: info@ienergy.kiev.ua
Corresponding author: Kostenko_HP@nas.gov.ua
OVERVIEW OF EUROPEAN TRENDS IN ELECTRIC VEHICLE IMPLEMENTATION
AND THE INFLUENCE ON THE POWER SYSTEM
Abstract. An overview of the trends in the development of electric transport in European
countries is presented, including the state and tax policy of supporting electric transport
owners, the dynamics of the growth of the European fleet of electric vehicles, the de-
velopment of charging infrastructure and the main principles of the interaction between
electric vehicles and power system. The experience of countries that have successfully
developed electric transport was reviewed, and it was found that the demand for electric
cars mostly depends on the price of electric cars for the end user, infrastructure devel-
opment and government incentive programs. The review also showed that, in practice,
the wide spread of electric vehicles should occur simultaneously with the development
of the corresponding infrastructure, as well as the development of systems for their in-
teraction with the energy system and compliance with global environmental standards.
The growing number of electric vehicles certainly requires special attention from network
and power system operators, because the appearance of charging stations of various
manufactures and capacities, installed in residential areas, private and apartment build-
ings, can lead to the number of problems, the emergence of which is associated with
electromagnetic compatibility, overloading of electric cables and distribution transform-
ers, safety of operation, that as a result can negatively affect the reliability and quality of
power supply. There is also the potential risk that with a certain number of EVs, there will
not be enough existing generation capacity and capacity of the electricity grid to charge
EV batteries. The analysis of the principles of interaction between electric vehicles and
power system in Europe showed that they are based on the concept of Smart Grid - smart
or intelligent power supply networks, by means of which the electric vehicle charging
system can be managed by the energy supplying company in order to solve a number of
energy system tasks: increasing the efficiency of network infrastructure using, peak load
shift and the development of smart grid infrastructure.
Keywords: electric vehicle, electric charging station, charging infrastructure, power sys-
tem, environmental requirements, the Smart Grid concept.
© G. KOSTENKO, 2022
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Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system
ISSN 2786-7102 (Online). System Research in Energy. 2022. 1(70)
the power system, as well as a study of the main
methods and means of mitigating this impact, devel-
oped and implemented in the EU.
2. Methods and materials
As part of the European Green Deal [2] adopted
in 2019, the European Commission presented a new
package of proposals for strengthening environmen-
tal requirements, including a separate scenario and
a number of requirements for the decarbonization
of transport, and as a result, for the electrifi cation
of the transport sector. Thus, from 2030, CO2 emis-
sions from new passenger cars should be decreased
by 37.5% compared to 2021, for vans by 31%. In ad-
dition, it is expected to provide more than 1 million
charging points for electric vehicles by 2025 and ap-
proximately 3.5 million by 2030 [2].
At the EU level, a set of current legislative in-
struments that directly or indirectly regulate green-
house gas emissions from road transport is compre-
hensively analyzed and taken into account in the
position paper of the European Network of Elec-
tricity Transmission System Operators ENTSO-E
on the integration of electric vehicles into electric
networks [3]. Thus, the requirements for the lev-
el of CO2 emissions of new cars are regulated by
Regulation (EU) 2019/631 setting CO2 emission
performance standards for new passenger cars and
for new light commercial vehicles [4] and Regula-
tion (EU) 2019/1242 setting CO2 emission perfor-
mance standards for new heavy-duty vehicles [5],
and stimulate the replacement of cars with internal
combustion engines (ICE) by cars with zero CO2
emissions by means of restrictions on the specifi c
CO2 emissions of a new car. Restrictions on the size
of the fl eet of vehicles with internal combustion
engines for state needs are regulated by Directive
(EU) 2019/1161 “On the promotion of clean and
energy-effi cient road transport vehicles” [6], which
stimulates the replacement of vehicles with internal
combustion engines operated by state structures of
EU member states with cars with zero CO2 emis-
sions by establishing a minimum share of “clean”
vehicles in the total volume of transport purchases
by state structures, individually for each EU coun-
try. Greenhouse gas emissions from road transport
are regulated by Regulation (EU) 2018/842 on
binding annual greenhouse gas emission reductions
by Member States from 2021 to 2030 contributing
to climate action to meet commitments under the
Paris Agreement [7]. The possibility of establish-
ing tax benefi ts related to the stimulation of the use
of electric vehicles is regulated by Art. 19 of Direc-
tive 2003/96/EU “on the restructuring the Commu-
nity framework for the taxation of energy products
and electricity” [8]. Directive 2014/94/EU “On the
deployment of alternative fuel infrastructure” es-
tablishes a set of measures for the creation of al-
ternative fuel infrastructure in order to minimize
dependence on oil and mitigate the impact of trans-
port on the environment [9].
In addition, the European Commission present-
ed the REPowerEU plan on May 18, 2022, designed
to end the EU’s dependence on Russian fossil fu-
els, as well as to overcome the climate crisis. One
of the points of this plan [10] is to accelerate the
transition to zero-emission vehicles, for which a
legislative initiative is being introduced to increase
the share of zero-emission cars in state and corpo-
rate fl eets in greater amount than were previously
determined.
Thus, the influence of environmental factors
led to the fact that many European countries de-
veloped and adopted plans to completely ban the
sale of cars with internal combustion engines. For
example, Norway and the Netherlands intend to
ban the sale of new cars and light commercial ve-
hicles, as well as city buses with internal combus-
tion engines as early as 2025. From 2030, Sweden,
Germany and Denmark plan to introduce similar
initiatives, and from 2035–2040 – Great Britain,
France and Spain [11].
It should be noted that greenhouse gas emis-
sions during the entire life cycle of electric trans-
port – from the production of all components (in-
cluding batteries), operation and to their disposal
– are not zero. The amount of these emissions de-
pends primarily on the structure of power produc-
tion in each country. Therefore, the carbon foot-
print for road transport (including electric vehi-
cles) is calculated separately for each country, its
value differs significantly in different countries,
and the term of operation or mileage in thousand
km is also calculated, after which compensation
for harmful emissions occurs.
Research conducted in 2021 showed that during
the entire life cycle (in particular, because of the
higher effi ciency of the electric motor), electric cars
produce on average about 22% less CO2 emissions
than cars with internal combustion engines, and in
countries with fully decarbonized energy, this fi gure
can reach 70–80% [12]. In addition, in a 2020 study
on determining the environmental impact of tradi-
tional and alternative fuel vehicles using life cycle
assessment [13], taking into account specifi c emis-
sions during electricity production in diff erent coun-
tries, it was found that CO2 emissions during the
life cycle (per 250,000 km mileage) of mid-segment
electric cars are 33% (Great Britain), 30% (Germa-
ny), 35% (France) lower than for similar cars with
internal combustion engines. In France, CO2 emis-
sions during the life cycle of electric cars are com-
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G. KOSTENKO
ISSN 2786-7102 (Online). Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2022. 1(70)
pensated much earlier due to the low carbon capacity
of France’s electricity, associated with a high share
of nuclear generation (about 75%), – after 25,000
km of mileage compared to almost 100,000 km for
cars with internal combustion engines. According to
forecasts for 2030, due to rapid changes in the struc-
ture of electricity generation in European countries,
the moment when the emissions during the life cy-
cle of electric vehicles become lower than the CO2
emissions of cars with internal combustion engines
will come much earlier [13].
Steady growth of the electric vehicle market
has been noted in European countries since 2020,
according to EV-Volumes [14], which indicates a
trend towards mass distribution of electric transport.
As shown in Tab.1, formed according to the data
of the leading European media platform in trans-
port Fleet Europe [15], in 2020–2021 already more
than 20% of new passenger cars sold in many EU
member states were fully electric or hybrid. At the
same time, according to the data of the Association
of European Automobile Manufacturers ACEA [16],
the share of cars with internal combustion engines
dropped signifi cantly (from 89% to 75%).
By 2030, in Europe, according to various sce-
narios for the development of electric transport, the
growth of the fl eet of electric vehicles is predicted
from 33 to 44 million units, that is, more than 10
times compared to the current state [16]. Today, the
number of electric vehicles in European countries is
growing rapidly not only due to the general climate
policy, but primarily due to the implementation of
state assistance programs (tax reductions and bene-
fi ts, as well as subsidies for buyers of electric vehi-
cles [16]. Therefore, the planned development of the
electric vehicle fl eet requires further strengthening
of support and assistance programs at the legisla-
tive, economic and political levels.
It should be noted that success in the develop-
ment and diff usion of electric transport largely de-
pends on incentives at the state and local levels.
Electrifi cation of transport in Europe has acquired
a stable character, however, this process occurs at
diff erent speeds in diff erent countries. And it can
be noted that the most signifi cant indicators in this
matter are developed incentive programs at the state
level and the GDP indicator.
In general, there are three groups of countries di-
vided by these characteristics:
1. Countries with a high share of EV in the total
fl eet of cars (>33%) are Norway, Sweden and the
Netherlands. This group is characterized by a high
level of GDP, a highly developed and generous pro-
gram to stimulate the purchase of electric vehicles
and business programs in charging infrastructure
for electric vehicles. As evidenced by the practice
of these countries, the best way to stimulate the de-
velopment of electric transport is exemption from
taxes and fees.
2. Countries with average indicators (between
20% and 33%) – Germany, Belgium, Great Britain,
Switzerland and France. This group is characterized
by a high or average level of GDP, average devel-
opment and implementation of only some of the
possible programs to stimulate the purchase of elec-
tric vehicles and development in electric transport
charging infrastructure.
3. Countries with low indicators (<20%) – Italy,
Ireland, Spain and Poland. This group is character-
ized by an average or low level of GDP, low or com-
pletely absent development of stimulation programs
and low development of EV charging infrastructure.
Table 1. The dynamics of the development of the electric vehicles fl eet in European countries, unit [15]
Country EV sales in
2021
% compare
to 2020
HEV sales
in 2021
% compare
to 2020
Total car sales
in 2021
% compare
to 2020 EV part, %
Norway 22410 +36,0 20846 +46,4 52147 +8,0 83%
Sweden 21060 +74,3 33615 +4,6 98782 +1,1 55%
Netherlands 38894 –12,8 12564 +80,8 138196 –12,7 37%
Germany 104775 +104,3 141658 +53,7 768175 –6,5 31%
Belgium 16560 +72,3 38887 +54,9 178632 –3,2 31%
Great Britain 105949 +71,6 64890 +66,7 622661 +3,4 27%
Swizerland 7062 +70,6 4388 +42,7 51210 +1,0 22%
France 32196 +41,8 66601 +107,1 483503 +7,8 20%
Italy 22588 +64,3 35218 +202,0 328265 +16,5 18%
Ireland 3136 +120,7 1754 +388,6 36356 +36,9 13%
Spain 8229 +14,5 21212 +74,8 250406 +0,3 12%
Poland 3817 +131,5 5057 +121,4 253605 +13,2 3%
65
Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system
ISSN 2786-7102 (Online). System Research in Energy. 2022. 1(70)
In Germany, at the current stage, about 570,000
electric cars are registered, and this is only about
1% of the country’s car fleet. At the same time, it is
planned to cancel the registration of cars with in-
ternal combustion engines by 2030, which should
stimulate the demand for electric cars and increase
the production and sale of electric cars by 33% an-
nually, expecting to reach 15 million electric cars
in 2030 [17].
In France, they use all methods that allow to update
the existing car fl eet of citizens, signifi cantly increas-
ing the share of electric cars and hybrids. In addition,
the French government announced a competition to
create a French electric car costing less than €7,000,
in order to stimulate private companies to create envi-
ronmentally friendly public vehicles [18].
Stimulation policies for electric transport intro-
duced in the Netherlands in 2009 were aimed at in-
creasing the number of electric vehicles to 200,000
units by 2020, up to 1 million units by 2025 and a
complete refusal to sell new cars with internal com-
bustion engines by 2030 [18]. In the Netherlands,
each underground parking lot has specially marked
and equipped spaces designated for electric vehi-
cles. In addition, cities are equipped with a large
number of charging stations located on the streets.
For example, in The Hague – a city with a popu-
lation about 500,000 people – there are about 500
charging stations, and the local government plans to
install another 500 in the coming years [19].
In Norway, a broad program of state subsidies for
electric car owners, launched back in the 1990s (tax
benefi ts, no tolls on toll roads, free parking, etc.) is
planned and implemented. Norway has one of the
most developed incentive systems for the purchase
of electric vehicles in the world: electric cars are ex-
empt from VAT and purchase tax, road tolls and tolls
for traveling through tunnels and using ferries. As
a result of all current tax incentives in Norway, the
Volkswagen eGolf electric car, due to the support
system for electric cars and the tax burden on cars
with an internal combustion engine, costs less than
the variant of the Volkswagen Golf with an internal
combustion engine [20].
Thus, as a result of government programs to stim-
ulate and support the spread of electric cars, initially
much more expensive electric cars after taxation be-
come cheaper or equal in price to cars with internal
combustion engines of similar characteristics. The
share of tax on CO2 emissions in the fi nal price of
a gasoline car is from 10 to 17%, the share of tax
on nitrogen oxide emissions is from 0.2 to 0.75%,
the share of tax on car weight is 15% – 20% [20].
In general, the amount of taxes levied on gasoline
cars can be considered as an indirect subsidy for the
purchase of an electric car.
Despite the rapid growth of sales of electric
vehicles in European countries, the development
of charging infrastructure for electric vehicles
also differs significantly depending on the coun-
try. According to research by the Association of
European Automobile Manufacturers ASEA [21],
70% of all charging stations in the EU (both high-
speed and conventional) are concentrated in only
three countries of Western Europe: the Nether-
lands, France and Germany. At the same time,
these countries make up only 23% of the total area
of the EU. On the contrary, the remaining 30%
of the charging infrastructure is distributed over
the remaining 77% of the EU area. For example,
Romania is about six times the size of the Nether-
lands, but has only 493 charging stations, or 0.2%
of the total in the EU.
According to the European Federation of Trans-
port and Environment (Transport & Environment),
on average, as of 2021, in the EU, there are 5 high-
speed public chargers for every 100 km [22], de-
spite the fact that most modern electric vehicles can
travel more than 400 km on a full battery charge .
However, if we consider the entire European terri-
tory, the charging infrastructure for electric vehi-
cles is very unevenly developed across countries
(see Fig. 1).
There is a very wide gap in the density of charging
infrastructure between richer EU member states in
Western Europe and countries with lower GDP in
Eastern, Central and Southern Europe. Some coun-
tries with a large territory and lower GDP, such as
Poland (0.8% of EU charging stations) and Spain
(3.3%), have underdeveloped charging infrastruc-
ture [22].
The most developed and fl exible system for the
development of charging infrastructure for electric
cars is currently in the Netherlands, where every
owner of an electric car can request the installation
of a charging station near their place of residence.
In addition, local experts analyze how and when
charging stations are most actively used in order to
optimize the infrastructure and as a result, electric
charging stations (EPS) are installed in places where
it is most convenient for users.
At the moment, there are about 374,000 public
electric power stations in Europe. At the same time,
only 12% of them are “high-speed” (with a pow-
er of 22 kW and above). At the current stage, the
electric charging infrastructure in Europe is devel-
oping by increasing the number of powerful or so-
called high-speed EVs (with a capacity of more than
22 kW) of fast charging. So, for example, the fast-
est charging station in the world “Terra 360” with a
capacity of 360 kW has been installed in Norway,
which allows you to fully charge the battery of an
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electric car in 15 minutes. In the future, Terra 360
terminals are planned to be installed throughout
Norway and Switzerland [23].
Energy companies, primarily those directly in-
volved in the distribution of electricity, participate
in the creation of the EHS infrastructure in Europe.
Thus, the pan-European G4V project on the creation
of a universal infrastructure for electric transport
unites the companies ENEL, ENDESA, VATTEN-
FALL, EDF, EDP and RWE, i.e. the largest Europe-
an participants in the electricity distribution market.
The growing number of electric vehicles that al-
ready interact and will interact with the energy sys-
tem in the coming years certainly requires special
attention from network and energy system opera-
tors, because the appearance of charging stations of
various designs and capacities installed in residen-
tial areas, private and multi-apartment buildings can
lead to the emergence of a number of problems, the
list of which is presented in Tab. 2 [24], the occur-
rence of which is associated with electromagnetic
compatibility and deterioration of the quality of the
power supply voltage, overloading of electric cables
and distribution transformers, operational safety,
etc. If the rapid growth of the fl eet of electric vehi-
cles takes place without the active participation of
energy companies in the creation of infrastructure,
then this infrastructure and new types of unplanned
loads may negatively aff ect the reliability and qual-
ity of electricity supply. There is also the potential
risk that with a certain number of EVs, there will not
be enough existing generating capacity and capacity
of the electricity grid to charge EV batteries.
In order to avoid all the above-mentioned nega-
tive eff ects in networks and the power system, the
European principles of designing and launching
the infrastructure for electric vehicles are based on
the principles of Smart Grid – smart or intelligent
power supply networks, where charging stations,
the charging management system and the electric
vehicles themselves can be controlled by the en-
ergy company to solve the following tasks power
systems: increasing the effi ciency of the use of net-
work infrastructure; load shift; development of the
appropriate smart grids infrastructure. In the power
industry, smart grids are necessary for optimizing
the operation of power supply systems and ensur-
ing energy effi ciency, their application allows con-
trolling and optimizing the charging process and al-
lows regulating the amount of energy consumed by
the vehicle, depending on the state of grids during
charging. In order to create a single technical policy
when solving the mentioned problems in Europe, a
set of standards was developed to regulate various
aspects of charging stations and devices operation.
To date, several modifi cations of the concepts
of smart grids for electric vehicles have been de-
veloped, depending on the number and type of ac-
tive elements and their interaction and charging
schemes. These include the concepts of V1G (Uni-
directional Smart Charging, vehicle – grids, uni-
directional charging) and V2G (Vehicle-to-Grid,
Fig. 1. Number of high-speed charging stations per 100 km in European countries [22]
С
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Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system
ISSN 2786-7102 (Online). System Research in Energy. 2022. 1(70)
vehicle – grids, bidirectional charging) and V2B/
V2H/V2X (Vehicle-to-Building, vehicle – build-
ing/ Vehicle-to-Home, vehicle – private house/ Ve-
hicle-to-Everything, car – anything, bidirectional
charging) [25]. The V1G system allows you to con-
trol the charging of electric vehicles in such a way
that, if necessary, the charging power is increased
or decreased. Unlike the V1G concept, the V2G and
V2B/V2H/V2X concepts need several elements to
work, such as a bidirectional charger, a communica-
tion protocol for the interaction between the charger
and the car, a vehicle with all V2G capabilities, and
an effi cient system control (see Fig. 2).
Among these technologies, only V1G is unidi-
rectional, but it is the base for the rest. Compared
to V1G, battery capacity with V2G can be used 10
times more effi ciently. Given that the number of
electric vehicles in Europe is predicted to increase
by 50% in 2030 and by 80% in 2050, it is important
that their charging infrastructure is used effi ciently,
which requires the development of principles and
methods for managing the load of electric vehicle
batteries from the side of electrical grids and the
power system as a whole.
It should be noted that an electric car is not only
an active consumer of electricity, but also a potential
element of its temporary storage. Electric vehicles
become both an additional load and a resource of
new opportunities for the energy system. Due to the
optimal management of the charging process poten-
tial problems of the energy system can be solved and
all potential opportunities can be taken advantage of.
Fig. 2. The scheme of bidirectional V2G charging
Table 2. The impact of uncontrolled EV charging on grid stability and power quality [24]
Parameter Remarks
І. Grid stability parameters
Voltage Stability
EV charging presents diff erent load characteristics as compared to conventional loads. Integration
of EVs can negatively aff ect voltage stability of the grid, which depends on the location,
penetration level, EV charging time.
Frequency Stability
The uncertainty of EV connection point, level of penetration, and the period of connection and
disconnection causes increased level of load demand. This may have detrimental impact on
frequency stability of the grid. However, EV can be operated as controlled load and with faster
ramp rate can participate in grid frequency regulation.
Oscillatory Stability
The characteristics of EV load is signifi cantly diff erent from conventional loads. The negative
exponential EV load characteristics have more impact to the power system oscillatory stability
compared to conventional systemloads.
ІІ. Power quality parameters
Fluctuation in
voltage
The eff ect on voltage fl uctuations depends on the level of integration and the charging speed of
electric vehicles. If the charging speed and power increases, so does the impact.
Voltage Unbalance The eff ect on the voltage imbalance increases with the increase in the charge of the electric
vehicle with a single-phase charge.
Grid Losses
Power losses increase with the large number of uncontrolled and single-phase EV charging
systems. Overload and losses in the distribution transformer increase with the increase in the
number of electric vehicles.
Harmonics
The impact on harmonics due to the proliferation of electric vehicles increases with penetration
levels and increasing charging rates. Harmonics increase with random unregulated charging of
electric vehicles.
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Optimal management of electric vehicle charging
leads to the following positive eff ects in the energy
system:
– changing the electrical load schedule (load
shift);
– provision of auxiliary services for operation of
the power grid;
– grid congestion management;
– avoiding overloading of distribution grids;
– voltage control in distribution grids;
– reduction of excess RES generation;
– services “over the counter” (from the consum-
er’s side).
It should be noted that these advantages and ef-
fects with smart charging can be achieved simulta-
neously. The most relevant example is the transfer
of electric vehicle charging from the evening hours
to the daytime hours. In this case, a decrease in
the cost of electricity for end consumers will be
achieved, overloading of distribution networks will
be reduced, the electricity production curve will be
favorably changed, and overproduction will be lim-
ited. The development and use of this system can
allow for the regulation of power fl ow and the in-
tegration of renewable energy sources into the grid
by increasing the reserve capacity of the national
grid operator and enabling the long-term phase-out
of peak generating capacities that produce electric-
ity with a high carbon content. (Fig. 3) shows the
impact of smart charging on the forecasted load
profi le in Germany, together with a histogram of
RES generation [26], which visually shows the
shift in peak demand to the time slot when more
electricity is produced.
Similarly, several advantages can be gained by
controlling the charging process in real time. Peak
load on charging infrastructure can be reduced, volt-
age can be controlled by distribution system opera-
tors, ancillary services can be provided to the trans-
mission network and network congestion can be
managed. Unlike the previous example, in this case
the four objectives cannot be achieved simultane-
ously, as diff erent control strategies will be required.
The European network of electricity transmission
system operators ENTSO-E assigns electric vehicles
the role of a powerful resource not only for the de-
carbonization of the transport sector, but also for the
creation of a signifi cant potential operational reserve
in the energy system [3]. This allows to believe that
the optimal interaction of the charging structure and
electric vehicles with the power system will provide
important environmental and economic benefi ts for
consumers and all involved entities. At the same time,
the process of charging electric vehicles represents a
real place of interaction between the transport and
power sectors and is an important element for ensur-
ing the successful development of both sides.
The European Association of the Electric Power
Industry Eurelectric released a study on the develop-
ment of the electric vehicle market and related infra-
structure [27]. According to this study, the number
of electric vehicles in Europe is expected to increase
from 3 to 130 million over the next 13 years, re-
sulting in an increase in demand for electricity. The
peak load on networks will increase by 21–90%, and
therefore the transition to electric mobility will be
accompanied by frequent voltage spikes, power loss
and rising energy prices.
If the current rate of spread of electric transport
in Europe is maintained, the number of electric vehi-
cles will increase to 65 by 2030, and to 130 million
units by 2035. For this reason rapid development of
infrastructure will be required to charge future elec-
tric vehicles: 34 million EVs by 2030 and 65 mil-
lion EVs by 2035, with most of them (56 million)
to be installed in residential buildings. According to
Eurelectric’s calculations, 115 billion EUR will be
needed to deploy such an infrastructure [27].
It is assessed that charging an EV at a consumer’s
residence is 59-78% cheaper than at a public termi-
Fig. 3. Forecasted average daily load schedule in Germany. On the left – with an uncoordinated charging
of electric vehicles. On the right – with the implementation of intelligent charging of electric vehicles [26]
69
Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system
ISSN 2786-7102 (Online). System Research in Energy. 2022. 1(70)
nal, and predicts that by 2035, 85% of charging ses-
sions will take place at home networks, with another
6% being on-site charging works, 5% – for public
places such as parking lots, 4% – for expressways.
It is clear that this increase in the number of elec-
tric vehicles will cause an increase in the demand
for electricity, which is expected to increase by
1.8 percent each year and reach 3,530 TWh by 2030.
Analysis of options for the use of chargers showed
that the peak load would increase by 21–90 percent,
and the load factor of transformers would increase
by 19–80 percent [27].
Belgium’s electric load graphs [27] clearly
show the regulatory capacity of electric vehicles
with smart grid concepts. The impact of V1G and
V2G smart charging on the electric load schedule
is presented in (Fig. 4), which shows the simulat-
ed average daily electric load from EV charging in
Belgium for 2030.
One of the implemented Smart Grid projects
adopted by other European countries is the EcoG-
rid EU project implemented in Denmark [28],
which differs from most similar projects in Eu-
rope by using market instruments of consumers
motivation to change their power consumption
mode based on electricity prices. Thus, consum-
ers, including owners of electric vehicles, partic-
ipate in the provision of services for maintaining
the balance and managing the load of the power
system in real time.
In addition, a number of V2G projects were suc-
cessfully implemented in practice in the Nether-
lands, Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, etc. [29].
The implementation of electric vehicle charging
coordination strategies by power system transforms
the traditional power system into a distributed sys-
tem, in which a separate element (in this case, an
electric vehicle or an electric vehicle aggregator)
connected to the grid also has the ability to provide
electricity to the grid, forming a separate distribut-
ed microgenerator. From the point of view of distri-
bution networks, the charging infrastructure is the
electricity sales channel, and the charger is the sales
terminal. An electric service company can install the
charger, operate it and make a profi t.
For example, RWE (a German company for the
maintenance of electric grids) created a charging
network for electric vehicles separately from
the gas station network [30]. While installing 11
charging stations in the city of Essen to attract con-
sumers, the company developed and off ered a tariff
system for electric vehicles called “Autostrom”.
RWE has launched a pilot project in major German
cities with ambitious plans to connect charging in-
frastructure for electric vehicles across Germany
into a single network. However, it should be noted
that with a distributed type of power grid, its op-
eration is somewhat complicated by the fact that
it is necessary to monitor and solve consumption
patterns in real time.
It should be noted that with the development
of technologies, the service time associated with
charging an electric vehicle is signifi cantly reduced,
soon it will be possible to charge it almost instantly.
From the point of view of electric vehicles, this pro-
vides an advantage that will accelerate the diff usion
of electric vehicles.
3. Results
The performed review showed that the connec-
tion of a large number of electric vehicles to the
distribution grid causes a corresponding technical
Fig. 4. The impact of electric vehicle charging management strategies
on the electric load schedule in Belgium [27]
70
G. KOSTENKO
ISSN 2786-7102 (Online). Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2022. 1(70)
and economic impact on the power system. Studies
of the impact of EV charging on the electricity sec-
tor have shown that it depends on when, where and
how they are charged. When charging, electric cars
consume between 15 and 30 kWh of electricity per
charging session, which is equivalent to the daily
electricity consumption of an average household.
Although the demand for the charging service is
not constant throughout the day, it can be man-
aged, so the Smart Grid system is designed to avoid
charging EVs during peak electric load hours,
when energy demand is higher, and to facilitate re-
charging during hours when energy consumption is
lower, thus using electric vehicles in particular and
the charging infrastructure in general as a consum-
er-regulator of electric power.
4. Conclusions
The European car fleet has a steady trend to-
wards an increase in the share of electric and hy-
brid cars, which will continue in the future due to
the planned phase-out of cars with internal com-
bustion engines. Having considered the experience
of countries that have successfully developed elec-
tric transport, it was found that in general the de-
mand for electric vehicles depends on the cost of
electric vehicles for the end user, the development
of the charging infrastructure for electric vehicles
and government programs for preferential taxation
and additional measures to stimulate using of elec-
tric transport.
In practice, the eff ective widespread introduc-
tion of electric vehicles must occur simultaneously
with the development of the appropriate charging
infrastructure for electric vehicles, as well as the de-
velopment of systems for their interaction with the
power system and compliance with global environ-
mental standards. Despite the higher cost of electric
transport, its operating costs could be signifi cantly
lower, and with the expected decrease in the cost of
the battery in the future, the share of electric trans-
port in the market will constantly grow.
The connection of an electric vehicle to the dis-
tribution grid determines the corresponding tech-
nical and economic impact on the power system.
Determining the degree of impact of EV charging
infrastructure on the power system depends on
when, where and how they are charged. Although
the electricity demand for electric vehicle charging
is not constant throughout the day, it can be pre-
dicted, so the Smart Grid system is designed to
manage the demand for the charging service and is
designed to avoid charging electric vehicles during
peak hours when the energy demand is greater and
to facilitate recharging in hours when less energy
is consumed.
The results of this work should be used for fur-
ther research on the current state, studying the main
trends and determining the prospects for the devel-
opment of electric transport and charging infrastruc-
ture in Ukraine, and forecasting the volumes and
modes of electric energy consumption by electric
transport for the terms of Ukraine.
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Надійшла до редколегії: 02.09.2022
|
| id | systemreorg-article-573 |
| institution | System Research in Energy |
| keywords_txt_mv | keywords |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-07-19T01:18:28Z |
| publishDate | 2022 |
| publisher | General Energy Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| record_format | ojs |
| resource_txt_mv | systemreorg/41/acb26e8a47df3bf2995715c33d5fa941.pdf |
| spelling | systemreorg-article-5732026-07-18T12:57:42Z Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system Огляд європейських тенденцій розвитку електротранспорту та його взаємодії з енергетичним сектором Kostenko, Ganna electric vehicle, electric charging station, charging infrastructure, power system, environmental requirements, the Smart Grid concept електромобіль, електрозарядна станція, зарядна інфраструктура, стимулювання розвитку електричного транспорту, екологічні вимоги, викиди парникових газів, інтелектуальні системи An overview of the trends in the development of electric transport in European countries is presented, including the state and tax policy of supporting electric transport owners, the dynamics of the growth of the European fleet of electric vehicles, the development of charging infrastructure and the main principles of the interaction between electric vehicles and power system. The experience of countries that have successfully developed electric transport was reviewed, and it was found that the demand for electric cars mostly depends on the price of electric cars for the end user, infrastructure development and government incentive programs. The review also showed that, in practice, the wide spread of electric vehicles should occur simultaneously with the development of the corresponding infrastructure, as well as the development of systems for their interaction with the energy system and compliance with global environmental standards. The growing number of electric vehicles certainly requires special attention from network and power system operators, because the appearance of charging stations of various manufactures and capacities, installed in residential areas, private and apartment buildings, can lead to the number of problems, the emergence of which is associated with electromagnetic compatibility, overloading of electric cables and distribution transformers, safety of operation, that as a result can negatively affect the reliability and quality of power supply. There is also the potential risk that with a certain number of EVs, there will not be enough existing generation capacity and capacity of the electricity grid to charge EV batteries. The analysis of the principles of interaction between electric vehicles and power system in Europe showed that they are based on the concept of Smart Grid - smart or intelligent power supply networks, by means of which the electric vehicle charging system can be managed by the energy supplying company in order to solve a number of energy system tasks: increasing the efficiency of network infrastructure using, peak load shift and the development of smart grid infrastructure. Наведено огляд європейських тенденцій сприяння поширенню електричного транспорту, таких як екологічна ефективність, державна та податкова політика підтримки власників електричного транспорту, динаміка зростання парку електромобілів, розвиток зарядної інфраструктури та основні принципи взаємодії електромобілів з енергосистемою. Виявлено основні чинники, що впливають на попит на електромобілі та найбільш ефективні заходи зі сприяння поширення електромобілів. Встановлено, що ступінь впливу інфраструктури заряджання електромобілів на електроенергетичний сектор залежить від того, коли, де та як вони заряджаються. Описано основні принципи та переваги застосування концепції Smart Grid, яка призначена для керування попитом на послугу заряджання та створена таким чином, щоб уникати зарядки електромобілів у години пікового споживання і сприяти переносу підзарядки в години зниження попиту на електроенергію в енергосистемі, використовуючи таким чином електромобілі зокрема та інфраструктуру заряджання загалом, як додаткове джерело гнучкості в енергосистемі та як споживача-регулятора електричної потужності. General Energy Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine 2022-10-19 Article Article application/pdf https://systemre.org/index.php/journal/article/view/573 10.15407/srenergy2022.01.062 System Research in Energy; No. 1 (70) (2022): System Research in Energy; 62-71 Системні дослідження в енергетиці; № 1 (70) (2022): Системні дослідження в енергетиці; 62-71 2786-7102 2786-7633 en https://systemre.org/index.php/journal/article/view/573/502 Copyright (c) 2022 Ganna Kostenko https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0 |
| spellingShingle | electric vehicle electric charging station charging infrastructure power system environmental requirements the Smart Grid concept Kostenko, Ganna Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system |
| title | Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system |
| title_alt | Огляд європейських тенденцій розвитку електротранспорту та його взаємодії з енергетичним сектором |
| title_full | Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system |
| title_fullStr | Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system |
| title_full_unstemmed | Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system |
| title_short | Overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system |
| title_sort | overview of european trends in electric vehicle implementation and the influence on the power system |
| topic | electric vehicle electric charging station charging infrastructure power system environmental requirements the Smart Grid concept |
| topic_facet | electric vehicle electric charging station charging infrastructure power system environmental requirements the Smart Grid concept електромобіль електрозарядна станція зарядна інфраструктура стимулювання розвитку електричного транспорту екологічні вимоги викиди парникових газів інтелектуальні системи |
| url | https://systemre.org/index.php/journal/article/view/573 |
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