CLUSTER BASED DEPLOYMENT OF SECOND LIFE EV BATTERIES FOR RELIABLE AND SUSTAINABLE BACKUP POWER SOLUTION IN POWER SYSTEMS
In emergency situations, ensuring reliable backup power sources for the power system is critically important for maintaining the stability and uninterrupted operation of energy infrastructure. The challenges posed by wartime conditions and the growing vulnerability of energy infrastructure, particul...
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General Energy Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
2025
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| author | Kostenko, Ganna |
| author_facet | Kostenko, Ganna |
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{
"author": "Ganna Kostenko",
"institution": null
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| description | In emergency situations, ensuring reliable backup power sources for the power system is critically important for maintaining the stability and uninterrupted operation of energy infrastructure. The challenges posed by wartime conditions and the growing vulnerability of energy infrastructure, particularly HVsubstations, demand innovative approaches that combine economic efficiency, technical reliability, and environmental sustainability. The aim of this study is to develop comprehensive solutions for providing reliable and sustainable backup power to Ukraine's HVsubstations, addressing contemporary challenges in energy security and environmental resilience. The paper examines the potential of second life electric vehicle (EV) batteries as a promising alternative to traditional solutions, such as diesel generators. The use of second life batteries offers a novel approach that meets modern requirements for energy efficiency and sustainable development. The clustering methodology employed in the study enables the optimization of resource allocation among substations, considering factors such as load levels, outage frequency, and required reserve capacity. This approach ensures tailored solutions for the specific operational needs of each cluster, enhancing resource utilization efficiency. The study includes a detailed evaluation of the economic, technical, and environmental characteristics of various solutions, including diesel generators, new batteries, and second life batteries, both independently and in combination with renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic modules. The results demonstrate that second life batteries, particularly when integrated with renewable energy sources, offer substantial advantages, including cost reductions, decreased CO₂ emissions, and enhanced energy resilience. The proposed recommendations for implementing second life batteries are supported by a comprehensive analysis of legislative, technical, and economic aspects. This study provides a roadmap for integrating second life EV batteries as a sustainable and scalable solution to strengthen energy security, facilitate the transition to a low carbon economy, and enhance the resilience of Ukraine's power system. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.15407/srenergy2025.01.040 |
| first_indexed | 2026-03-24T02:03:30Z |
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Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 40
ISSN 2786-7102 (Online), ISSN 2786-7633 (Print)
https://doi.org/10.15407/srenergy2025.01.040
UDC 621.311
Ganna Kostenko, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8839-7633
General Energy Institute of NAS of Ukraine, 172, Antonovycha St., 03150, Kyiv, Ukraine
e-mail: Kostenko_HP@nas.gov.ua
_______________________________________________________________________________________
CLUSTER-BASED DEPLOYMENT OF SECOND-LIFE EV BATTERIES
FOR RELIABLE AND SUSTAINABLE BACKUP POWER SOLUTION IN
POWER SYSTEMS
Abstract. In emergency situations, ensuring reliable backup power sources for the power system is
critically important for maintaining the stability and uninterrupted operation of energy infrastructure.
The challenges posed by wartime conditions and the growing vulnerability of energy infrastructure,
particularly HVsubstations, demand innovative approaches that combine economic efficiency, technical
reliability, and environmental sustainability. The aim of this study is to develop comprehensive solutions
for providing reliable and sustainable backup power to Ukraine's HVsubstations, addressing
contemporary challenges in energy security and environmental resilience. The paper examines the
potential of second-life electric vehicle (EV) batteries as a promising alternative to traditional solutions,
such as diesel generators. The use of second-life batteries offers a novel approach that meets modern
requirements for energy efficiency and sustainable development. The clustering methodology employed in
the study enables the optimization of resource allocation among substations, considering factors such as
load levels, outage frequency, and required reserve capacity. This approach ensures tailored solutions
for the specific operational needs of each cluster, enhancing resource utilization efficiency. The study
includes a detailed evaluation of the economic, technical, and environmental characteristics of various
solutions, including diesel generators, new batteries, and second-life batteries, both independently and in
combination with renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic modules. The results demonstrate that
second-life batteries, particularly when integrated with renewable energy sources, offer substantial
advantages, including cost reductions, decreased CO₂ emissions, and enhanced energy resilience. The
proposed recommendations for implementing second-life batteries are supported by a comprehensive
analysis of legislative, technical, and economic aspects. This study provides a roadmap for integrating
second-life EV batteries as a sustainable and scalable solution to strengthen energy security, facilitate
the transition to a low-carbon economy, and enhance the resilience of Ukraine's power system.
Keywords: second-life batteries integration, backup power, resilience, HV substations, clustering
methodology, sustainable development.
1. Introduction
Ukraine’s energy sector is at a critical juncture, balancing the demands of modernization, resilience,
and sustainability. The Energy Strategy of Ukraine until 2050 outlines ambitious goals to enhance energy
independence, integrate renewables, and improve efficiency [1‒2]. These efforts align with the EU strategy
on power system integration, which emphasizes innovative and sustainable energy solutions [3]. However,
significant challenges remain, including the restoration of decimated infrastructure caused by ongoing
hostilities [4]. Some initiatives are pivotal in stabilizing the energy network while promoting sustainable
recovery [5]. Meanwhile, research highlights opportunities for innovation, including nuclear-centric
scenarios, regional energy efficiency programs, and advanced electro-thermal system structures [6‒10].
These frameworks emphasize the need for resilient and cost-effective solutions to ensure reliability and
sustainability.
The ongoing war in Ukraine has significantly impacted the nation’s energy infrastructure, revealing
vulnerabilities that demand immediate attention. High-voltage (HV) substations, essential for maintaining the
stability and functionality of the power grid [11‒13], have become frequent targets of attacks, disrupting
electricity supply to critical facilities. These interruptions underscore the urgent need for innovative, reliable,
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 41
and resilient backup power systems capable of maintaining continuity under adverse conditions, particularly
for the internal power needs of these substations, which are critical to their operation.
Traditional backup power solutions, such as diesel generators, have long been the standard choice for
ensuring uninterrupted energy supply. However, these systems are increasingly inadequate due to their
dependency on fuel supply chains, high operational costs, and substantial greenhouse gas emissions. While
new battery technologies offer a cleaner alternative, their high capital costs make them less accessible for
large-scale applications. These limitations necessitate the exploration of alternative solutions that balance
technical feasibility, economic viability, and environmental sustainability.
Second-life electric vehicle (EV) batteries present a promising alternative for addressing these
challenges [14‒17]. After their primary use in EVs, these batteries retain significant capacity for energy
storage applications, making them suitable for backup power systems [18‒20]. Their cost-effectiveness,
alignment with circular economy principles, and ability to provide rapid response and stable output make
them particularly well-suited for critical infrastructure such as HV substations and for enhancing power
system resilience in general [21‒29]. Furthermore, their integration into power systems offers a sustainable
approach to enhancing resilience, reducing environmental impact, and optimizing resource use.
Despite the demonstrated potential of second-life batteries (SLBs) in various applications [30‒36],
their use in HV substations, specifically for internal operational needs, remains an underexplored concept.
Substations, while standardized in equipment, operate under diverse conditions based on load profiles,
outage frequencies, and the criticality of the infrastructure they support. These variations demand tailored
solutions, underscoring the need for a granular, cluster-based approach to deploying SLBs. Categorizing
substations into operational clusters and customizing backup power strategies can enhance energy resilience
while optimizing resource allocation.
This study focuses on evaluating the feasibility of SLBs as a sustainable and reliable solution for
backup power at HV substations in Ukraine, with an emphasis on addressing their internal operational
requirements. By analyzing technical, economic, and environmental aspects, the paper aims to propose
operational models and recommendations tailored to the unique conditions of Ukraine's power system. The
objective is to establish SLBs as a cornerstone of energy resilience, offering cost-effective and
environmentally sustainable solutions for critical nodes in the power grid.
2. Methods and Materials
2.1. Power Supply Reliability and Sufficient Ensuring of Backup Power
The electrical power system is a complex, branched network (Fig. 1) that connects various power
generation sources, transmission and distribution grids, ensuring reliable electricity delivery to industrial,
urban, and rural consumers.
Figure 1. Electricity Supply Chain: From Generation to Consumers [37]
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 42
The ongoing war in Ukraine has profoundly impacted the country's energy system, creating significant
challenges in electricity generation and consumption. Figure 2 illustrates the shifts in key energy indicators
before and after the start of the conflict. Subplot (a) depicts the changes in electricity generation capacity by
energy source, highlighting the decline in natural gas and coal use. Subplot (b) shows daily electricity
demand trends, capturing the abrupt drop and subsequent stabilization. Subplots (c) and (d) present average
monthly electricity demand and generation capacity in 2021 and 2022, providing a comparative perspective
on seasonal variations and the resilience of the energy system. This analysis underscores the urgency of
implementing reliable and sustainable backup power solutions to address these disruptions.[37, 55].
Figure 2. Key Energy Indicators of Ukraine's Power System Before and After War Beginning
(a) Electricity generation capacity in 2021–2022; (b) Daily electricity demand in 2021/2022; (c) Average daily
electricity demand by month for 2021/2022; (d) Average daily electricity generation capacity by month for 2021/2022.
The data presented in Fig. highlight the critical challenges facing Ukraine's energy system and
emphasize the need for innovative solutions. The significant reduction in electricity generation capacity and
demand underscores the vulnerability of the current energy infrastructure. These disruptions reinforce the
importance of clustering substations and integrating second-life EV batteries as a means to enhance grid
resilience, reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and ensure reliable power supply for critical infrastructure
during crises.
Traditional backup power solutions, such as diesel generators and new battery systems, while effective
in the past, present significant limitations. Diesel generators, though reliable, emit substantial greenhouse
gases, contribute to climate change, and depend heavily on secure fuel supply chains, which are vulnerable
during crises. Similarly, new battery systems offer cleaner and more efficient alternatives but involve high
upfront costs, making widespread adoption economically challenging. These shortcomings necessitate
exploring innovative and sustainable solutions tailored to the specific demands of critical infrastructure like
HV substations. By integrating SLBs into HV substations, the power system can reduce reliance on fossil
fuels, mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, and ensure continuous operation of critical infrastructure even
during extended outages.
2.2. Traditional Solutions for Backup Power
In power systems, ensuring a reliable level of backup power is critical, especially for infrastructure
that plays a vital role in the stability of the grid or the functioning of essential services. The most common
approaches [37-38] for achieving this include the following:
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 43
Installation of an Additional Local Transformer Substation. This approach involves setting up an
auxiliary transformer substation to provide an independent backup power source. By directly connecting to
the primary grid, these substations ensure a stable and redundant power supply. They are particularly
effective for facilities with high energy demands or critical operations. However, this method requires
significant capital investment and long installation timelines, making it less feasible for smaller applications.
Deployment of a High-Capacity Diesel Generator with a Dedicated Connection to the Grid. Diesel
generators are widely used as backup power sources due to their ability to provide reliable and immediate
energy during outages. These systems are typically installed with a stationary connection to the grid through
a separate channel, ensuring they can operate autonomously when required. While diesel generators are
effective for short- to medium-duration outages, their reliance on fossil fuels leads to high operational costs
and environmental concerns, including significant CO₂ emissions.
Implementation of a High-Capacity Battery System. Establishing a sufficiently powerful battery
system is an increasingly popular method for backup power. Such systems are capable of maintaining the
operational functionality of a facility for extended periods during outages. Unlike diesel generators, battery
systems offer a cleaner and quieter alternative, with zero operational emissions. Advances in battery
technology, including the use of second-life batteries, have made this approach more economically viable.
Battery systems also integrate seamlessly with RES, such as solar panels, further enhancing their
sustainability and cost-effectiveness.
These methods vary in terms of cost, environmental impact, and suitability for specific applications.
The choice of solution often depends on the criticality of the infrastructure, the frequency and duration of
potential outages, and the economic considerations of the facility operator. Increasingly, a shift towards
battery systems is observed due to their alignment with global sustainability and energy resilience goals.
Diesel generators are a longstanding solution for backup power, valued for their ability to deliver
immediate and reliable energy during outages [56]. Their robustness makes them particularly suitable for
facilities with high energy demands, ensuring long durations of uninterrupted operation. Despite their
widespread use, diesel generators face several critical limitations that undermine their viability in modern
power systems. High operational costs, driven by significant fuel consumption and ongoing maintenance
requirements, present a substantial financial burden over time. Additionally, the environmental impact of
diesel generators is considerable, with significant CO₂ emissions contributing to climate change and air
pollution. Another major drawback is their dependency on consistent fuel supply, which exposes these
systems to vulnerabilities during logistical disruptions, particularly in crisis situations. These challenges
highlight the need for more sustainable and cost-effective alternatives in backup power solutions.є
Modern battery energy storage systems (BESS) have emerged as a promising alternative to traditional
generators, offering numerous advantages in terms of efficiency, environmental impact, and responsiveness
[54‒56]. These systems boast efficiency levels exceeding 90%, making them significantly more energy-
efficient than their diesel counterparts. Furthermore, batteries produce no direct emissions during operation,
aligning with global sustainability goals and reducing the carbon footprint of power systems. Their ability to
deliver near-instantaneous power makes them particularly well-suited for sensitive applications, where even
brief interruptions in power supply can have critical consequences. Despite these benefits, the high upfront
costs associated with new battery systems remain a significant barrier to their widespread adoption,
particularly in resource-constrained environments where financial limitations restrict large-scale
implementation.
Ensuring reliable backup power for critical infrastructure requires a careful assessment of cost,
efficiency, and environmental impact. Two primary solutions—diesel generators and lithium-ion batteries—
are widely used, each offering distinct advantages and trade-offs. Diesel generators provide a stable power
supply with relatively low upfront costs but suffer from high operational expenses and significant CO₂
emissions (500 g/kWh) [37]. Their efficiency is around 30%, and their average operational lifespan is
approximately 5 years with regular maintenance. They are typically deployed in 10–500 kW configurations,
depending on the scale of the facility. Lithium-ion batteries, on the other hand, offer a significantly higher
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 44
efficiency of 90 %, rapid response times (less than 1 second), and zero direct emissions.
In this study, second-life batteries from Nissan LEAF vehicles were considered, specifically focusing
on the 40 kWh NMC battery pack widely used in second-generation models. After primary use in electric
vehicles, these batteries typically retain 75–80% of their initial capacity, making them viable for secondary
applications in energy storage. With a cycle life ranging between 2000 and 3000 cycles, their operational
longevity is largely dependent on depth-of-discharge (DOD), thermal conditions, and charging strategies.
Under controlled operational settings, these batteries can provide an additional 7–10 years of service in
stationary storage systems before reaching the end-of-life threshold. Their modular 8-cell configuration
allows for efficient scaling in backup power applications, ensuring adaptability across different system
requirements. By leveraging these characteristics, Nissan LEAF second-life batteries offer a cost-effective,
scalable, and environmentally sustainable solution for enhancing energy resilience in power infrastructure.
The rated power capacity of the battery systems ranges from 50 kW to several MW, depending on system
configuration and the number of modules deployed. These batteries provide a cost-effective alternative with
lower long-term operational costs compared to diesel generators, making them an attractive option for
backup power solutions.
The following comparison (Tab. 1) summarizes the key characteristics of these backup power
technologies.
Table 1. Comparison of Diesel Generators and Li-ion Batteries for Backup Power Solutions
Parameter Diesel Generators Li-ion Batteries
Equipment Cost (₴/unit) 40000 115000
Operational Costs (₴/year) 60668 33227
CO₂ Emissions (g/kWh) 500 0
Lifespan (years) 5 10
Cost of Electricity (₴/kWh) 22.1 6.7
Efficiency (%) 30-40 85-90
Backup Duration (hours) 10 4-12 (depending on capacity and load)
Response Time (seconds) 10-60 1
Cyclic Durability (cycles) N/A 1000+
The data presented in Table 1 highlights the fundamental economic and environmental differences
between diesel generators and lithium-ion batteries as backup power solutions. While diesel generators
require a lower initial investment (₴40,000 vs. ₴115,000 for batteries), their significantly higher operational
costs (₴60,668/year vs. ₴33,227/year) result in a less favorable total cost of ownership. Additionally, diesel
generators produce substantial CO₂ emissions (500 g/kWh), whereas batteries operate with zero direct
emissions, making them a more environmentally sustainable alternative. Despite the higher upfront cost, the
longer lifespan of lithium-ion batteries (10 years vs. 5 years for generators) and their lower cost per kWh of
electricity (₴6.7/kWh vs. ₴22.1/kWh) further reinforce their long-term economic advantages. These findings
underscore the potential of battery storage systems to serve as a viable, cost-effective, and sustainable
backup power solution, particularly in applications where minimizing emissions and reducing dependency on
fuel supply chains are critical factors.
2.3. Second-Life Batteries as a Promising Backup Power Solution
SLBs, repurposed from EV, represent an innovative and cost-effective solution for reliable backup
power. Although no longer suitable for automotive use, these batteries retain significant energy storage
capacity, making them ideal for stationary applications. Their integration into power systems offers a unique
combination of technical reliability, economic feasibility, and ecological benefits. By extending their
lifecycle, SLBs align with circular economy principles, reduce environmental waste, and support a transition
to sustainable energy infrastructure.
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 45
Unlike traditional diesel generators, SLBs activate in under a second, ensuring uninterrupted operation
for critical systems such as HVsubstations. Their cost-effectiveness is particularly notable, with acquisition
costs significantly lower than those of new battery systems, and operational expenses minimized due to their
maintenance-free nature and lack of fuel dependency. Furthermore, SLBs operate without emissions,
presenting a zero-carbon alternative to diesel generators.
The integration of second-life EV batteries into the power system requires a holistic approach,
encompassing battery management, system coupling, and grid-level deployment to ensure technical
reliability, economic feasibility, and environmental sustainability, as illustrated in Fig. 3. It provides a deep
comparison of the total costs associated with various backup power solutions over a seven-year operational
period, offering valuable insights into the economic implications of each technology. This visual
representation emphasizes the stark differences in cost trajectories between traditional diesel generators, new
lithium-ion batteries, and second-life batteries, both standalone and integrated with solar panels. The
financial analysis highlights the increasing operational expenses of diesel generators due to fuel dependency
and maintenance costs, which significantly outpace the more stable and predictable costs of battery-based
solutions.
Figure 3. Framework for Integrating Second-Life EV Batteries into the Power System
Of particular interest is the cost-efficiency demonstrated by second-life batteries, especially when
paired with renewable energy sources like solar panels. This hybrid approach leverages the lower initial
investment of repurposed batteries while achieving further savings through reduced reliance on grid
electricity and fossil fuels. Such systems align with modern energy strategies aimed at reducing greenhouse
gas emissions and promoting sustainable energy practices. The results also underline the adaptability of
second-life batteries for critical applications like HV substations, where economic and environmental
performance must balance technical reliability.
This comparison reinforces the argument for transitioning to sustainable backup power solutions,
demonstrating that second-life batteries not only provide a cost-effective alternative but also support broader
energy resilience and decarbonization objectives. Tab. 3 provides a comparative analysis of diesel
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 46
generators, new lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), and second-life batteries, including configurations integrated
with solar panels. It must be specified separately that installation of a battery park requires the allocation of
sufficient space within the substation's territory to accommodate the necessary infrastructure. When
combined with photovoltaic panels, the space requirements increase significantly, as additional areas are
needed for the solar arrays and their associated equipment. Proper planning and site assessment are crucial to
ensure the efficient utilization of available land while maintaining operational flexibility and safety
standards.
The table highlights key technical, economic, and environmental metrics, offering a comprehensive
perspective on the benefits and limitations of each solution. The data presented in Tab.2 highlights the
unique advantages of SLBs as a sustainable and economically viable option for backup power systems.
These batteries exhibit significant cost savings, both in initial investment and ongoing operational expenses,
compared to new batteries and diesel generators. Furthermore, their zero-emission operation aligns with
global efforts to mitigate climate change, positioning them as a critical component in sustainable power
systems.
Table 2. Estimation of Cost, Energy and Environmental Benefits of Backup Power Solutions
Parameter
Diesel
Generators
New LIBs
Second-Life
Batteries
New LIBs + Solar
Panels
SLBs + Solar Panels
Capacity/Power (kWh/kW) - 100 80 120 90
Efficiency (%) 30 90 85 90 85
Backup Duration (hours) 10 8 6 8+ solar 6+ solar
Response Time (seconds) 10 <1 <1 <1 <1
Cycle Durability (cycles) - >1000 500-1000 >1000 500-1000
Equipment Cost (₴/unit) 40000 115000 80000 265000 200000
Operational Costs (₴/year) 60668 33227 25000 5227 4000
CO₂ Emissions (g/kWh) 480-500 0 0 0 0
Lifespan (years) 5 10 5 10 5
Electricity Cost (₴/kWh) 22.1 6.7 5.5 2.5 2.0
The analysis of various backup power solutions requires a detailed comparison of their cost dynamics
over time. Fig. 4 illustrates the results of an analysis of total expenses incurred over seven years for five
different backup power options: diesel generators, new lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), SLBs, new LIBs
integrated with solar panels, and SLBs combined with solar panels. These options are evaluated based on
initial investment, operational costs, and maintenance requirements, providing a clear perspective on the
long-term economic viability of each solution. This comparison highlights the advantages of integrating RES
and SLBs for achieving cost efficiency and sustainability in backup power systems.
Figure 4. Total Cost Dynamics for Different Backup Power Solutions
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 47
When combined with solar panels, SLBs further enhance the resilience and sustainability of power
systems. This hybrid approach not only extends backup durations but also reduces reliance on grid power
and fossil fuels. By integrating SLBs into power systems, particularly for critical applications like
HVsubstations, it is possible to achieve a balance between economic efficiency, environmental benefits, and
technical reliability. This comparison underscores the potential of SLBs to transform backup power
strategies, paving the way for a cleaner and more resilient energy future.
Implementing second-life EV batteries in power grid applications presents multiple challenges,
ranging from technical degradation to regulatory and financial barriers. While SLBs offer a promising
solution for backup power at substations, their performance, cost-effectiveness, and long-term sustainability
depend on addressing key risks associated with deployment. Tab. 3 outlines the main risk categories,
describing their potential impact and proposing mitigation strategies to enhance the feasibility and reliability
of SLBs in the energy system.
Table 3. Risk Assessment and Mitigation Strategies for SLB Deployment
Risk Category Description Potential Mitigation Strategies
Technical Risks
SLB degradation over time, reduced cycle life, and
declining efficiency in high-demand applications.
Implement predictive battery health models, integrate
real-time monitoring systems, and apply advanced battery
management systems (BMS)
Economic Risks
High initial investment costs and uncertain return
on investment due to fluctuating electricity prices.
Optimize financial models, implement government
incentives, and leverage energy arbitrage for cost
recovery.
Regulatory Risks
Lack of standardized policies for second-life
battery integration in grid infrastructure.
Develop national SLB standards, work on certification
frameworks, and establish grid compliance guidelines.
Operational Risks
Challenges in integrating SLBs into existing grid
infrastructure, potential compatibility issues with
different substations.
Enhance smart grid capabilities, implement modular SLB
architectures, and ensure compatibility testing with
substations.
Safety and
Environmental Risks
Potential risks of thermal runaway, fire hazards,
and improper recycling of SLBs after secondary
use.
Enforce strict safety protocols, develop fire prevention
systems, and establish SLB recycling and disposal
regulations.
A comprehensive risk assessment is essential for ensuring the long-term success of SLB deployment
in energy infrastructure. By addressing technical, economic, regulatory, operational, and environmental
challenges, stakeholders can maximize the efficiency and reliability of SLBs. Proactive measures such as
real-time monitoring, policy adaptation, financial incentives, and integration with smart grid technologies
will play a crucial role in overcoming these risks and accelerating SLB adoption in Ukraine's energy sector.
2.4. Backup Power for HVSubstations: Challenges and Opportunities
HV Substations play a pivotal role in ensuring the stability and reliability of power systems. They
serve as critical nodes for electricity transmission and distribution, connecting generation facilities to
consumers. However, the growing complexity of power systems, combined with external challenges such as
grid overloads and infrastructure attacks, has highlighted the need for robust and efficient backup power
solutions. This section explores the significance of HVsubstations, the potential of SLBs as a solution, and
the importance of clustering substations to optimize battery deployment.
Ukraine possesses an extensive energy infrastructure that includes numerous high-voltage substations,
playing a pivotal role in ensuring the stability of electricity supply. High-voltage substations are essential for
the transformation, distribution, and transmission of electricity within the country's power system. With the
growing demand for modernization of energy networks, particularly in wartime conditions, substations serve
as critical nodes for integrating innovative technologies, including backup power solutions.
Ukrainian substations adhere to strict standards for electrical safety, reliability, and energy efficiency,
as outlined in national regulations and guidelines. Of particular importance are the issues of redundancy and
stable power supply, which become critical during emergency or post-emergency situations. According to
the Rules for the Arrangement of Electrical Installations (PUE), substations must be equipped with backup
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 48
power systems, such as battery storage or specialized uninterruptible power supplies, to prevent disruptions
in the operation of key consumers.
Traditional approaches to substation backup power rely heavily on diesel generators. While these
systems provide reliable power during outages, they are expensive to operate and maintain. Additionally,
their reliance on fossil fuels contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, making them less aligned with global
sustainability goals. These limitations have driven the search for more sustainable and cost-effective
alternatives, such as second-life batteries. In the context of the increased vulnerability of Ukraine's energy
infrastructure, implementing innovative approaches to backup power is an urgent task. Specifically, the
deployment of second-life electric vehicle batteries at substations enables the combination of technical
efficiency with ecological and economic viability. Such solutions enhance the resilience of the power
system, reduce CO₂ emissions, and ensure a stable electricity supply even under extraordinary conditions.
The growing threat of infrastructure attacks and grid instability further underscores the importance of
robust backup systems. HVsubstations, often targeted during conflicts, require fast and reliable power
sources to maintain critical functions such as relay protection and system automation. This necessity has
spurred interest in exploring SLBs as a viable solution for substation backup power. HV Substations are
pivotal for ensuring the reliable operation and resilience of Ukraine’s power system. Based on several years
statistics, the country’s substations are categorized by their voltage levels, capacity, and distribution [57‒59,
60‒62]. Tab. 4 represents the Distribution of HV substations in Ukraine as for 2020 [62]. HV substations
play an essential role in stabilizing Ukraine's national power grid and facilitating interregional energy
transmission. Among these, 330 kV substations are particularly significant due to their widespread presence
and substantial cumulative capacity, making them a primary target for infrastructure improvements and
enhancements.
On the other hand, distribution substations operating at 110 kV and below serve as crucial connectors
between HVtransmission systems and end-users in urban and rural areas. The large number of 6–10 kV
substations highlights the extensive reach of the power system to individual consumers. However, their
impact on overall system reliability is limited due to their localized scope and smaller scale.
Table 4. Distribution of HV Substations in Ukraine (2020) [62]
Category Voltage Level
Number of
Substations
Total Capacity
(MVA)
Comments
Transmission
750 kV 9 19 735
Critical for long-distance energy transmission
and connecting major power plants.
400–500 kV 2 1699
Used for interregional energy transmission;
limited number reflects their specialized
applications.
330 kV 78 42326,9
Most common high-capacity substations, crucial
for integrating renewable energy and regional
supply.
220 kV 14 4236,8
Regional distribution substations supporting
medium-sized loads.
110 kV 4 170
Rarely used in transmission networks but
essential for specific applications.
Distribution
110 (150) kV 1495 -
Main distribution substations for urban and rural
areas.
35 kV 6633 -
Widely used for rural energy distribution and
medium-sized industrial facilities.
6–10 kV (TP/RP) 204860 -
Predominantly serve end-users like residential,
commercial, and small industrial consumers.
For backup power integration, HV Substations operating at 330 kV and above present the most
strategic opportunities for deploying secondary batteries. Their critical load profiles and central role in
maintaining grid stability underscore their importance. Substations operating at 220 kV and 110 kV, while
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 49
less critical, also offer potential for targeted backup power solutions, particularly in regions experiencing
frequent outages. This prioritization ensures a more effective and resource-efficient enhancement of the
power system's resilience.
The analysis underscores the strategic importance of integrating SLBs into backup systems for
HVsubstations, particularly at 330 kV and above. These substations, given their central role in energy
transmission and stability, offer the highest impact potential for resilience improvements. By leveraging
these insights, Ukraine’s energy infrastructure can enhance its robustness against outages and external
disruptions, aligning with broader goals of energy resilience and sustainability.
SLBs offer a range of advantages for backup power at HVsubstations. Their ability to deliver
instantaneous power makes them an ideal choice for critical applications where even brief delays can lead to
significant operational disruptions. These batteries can effectively support relay protection systems, ensuring
the rapid detection and isolation of faults to protect the grid. The modularity of SLBs allows for scalable
deployment, catering to the specific needs of each substation. This flexibility is particularly valuable in
scenarios where power demand and backup requirements vary widely. Moreover, the integration of batteries
into energy management systems enables advanced functionalities such as peak shaving, load balancing, and
demand response, enhancing overall grid resilience.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Clustering Substations for Optimized Second life EV Battery Utilization
Substations in an energy system typically have similar characteristics in terms of technical capabilities
and nominal power ratings. However, these substations are located in different nodes of the power grid,
which can vary in terms of energy balance. Some substations are situated in energy-deficient areas, where
the demand for power often exceeds local generation capacity, while others are located in self-sufficient
regions with abundant energy resources. This geographic variation leads to significant differences in energy
needs, even among stations with the same nominal power capacity.
As a result, the need for batteries in substations with the same power ratings may differ considerably
based on the specific conditions of each node. Substations in energy-deficient areas may require larger
energy reserves to ensure stable operation during power outages or peak demand periods, while those in self-
sufficient areas may have lower battery requirements. This discrepancy in energy needs necessitates the
application of clustering techniques to optimize battery distribution and ensure that each substation is
equipped with the appropriate level of backup energy storage, considering the local energy balance and
demand.Clustering substations based on their energy requirements, load profiles, and operational conditions
allows for a more efficient allocation of second-life batteries, ensuring that each substation receives the
optimal amount of backup power. This approach helps in minimizing costs, improving system reliability, and
supporting the integration of sustainable energy solutions across the grid.
The clustering method is a technique used to group data points into subsets or clusters based on their
similarities, where each cluster shares common characteristics. The goal of clustering is to organize data into
meaningful structures, making it easier to analyze patterns and relationships. In the context of energy
systems, clustering is typically applied to group substations, energy storage units, or other components based
on factors such as load demands, energy consumption, geographic location, and operational conditions.
The key benefit of the clustering method is its ability to simplify complex systems by categorizing
entities with similar attributes. This approach allows for more efficient resource allocation, as similar clusters
can be treated with the same optimization strategies or operational guidelines. For example, by clustering
substations with similar energy demands, one can optimize battery usage and distribution, ensuring that each
group receives the most suitable solution based on its specific needs. Additionally, clustering can enhance
decision-making processes, improve performance, and support scalability within large systems, as it enables
targeted solutions for different subgroups rather than a generic, one-size-fits-all approach.
Clustering substations is a critical step in optimizing the deployment of second-life EV batteries
(SLBs), ensuring that resources are allocated efficiently based on the specific operational needs and
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 50
characteristics of each substation. The proposed clustering methodology categorizes substations into four
distinct groups, each defined by load levels, outage frequencies, required reserve capacity, and the criticality
of their functions within the power grid. This approach allows for tailored battery solutions, enhancing both
the reliability and sustainability of backup power systems.
Rationale for Clustering Approach
Traditional reliability categories for energy consumers are primarily based on the criticality of
facilities and general requirements for ensuring uninterrupted power supply. However, these approaches
often overlook key operational parameters that influence the feasibility and efficiency of secondary battery
deployment.
In contrast, our cluster-based approach introduces three core innovations:
1. Customization of Solutions – Adapting SLB deployment based on operational characteristics rather
than a one-size-fits-all model.
2. Resource Optimization – Preventing the over-dimensioning or under-utilization of energy storage
systems by aligning reserve capacity with real demand.
3. Integration of Battery-Specific Technical Constraints – Considering degradation patterns,
efficiency losses, and cycle life when designing backup solutions.
By adopting this clustering methodology, backup power deployment becomes not just an
organizational tool, but a strategic framework that aligns with technical, economic, and environmental
priorities.
Key Objectives of Clustering
The implementation of clustering in SLB deployment serves multiple objectives:
Resilience Enhancement: Ensuring that backup power solutions align with outage patterns and operational
demands, minimizing downtime and supporting critical infrastructure.
Economic Optimization: Avoiding unnecessary capital expenditure by tailoring storage system capacity to
actual energy demand, maximizing cost-effectiveness.
Environmental Sustainability: Facilitating the integration of renewable energy sources (e.g., PV systems)
into backup power configurations, reducing dependency on fossil fuels.
Scalability and Adaptability: Allowing for dynamic adjustments in battery deployment as energy
infrastructure evolves over time.
Mathematical Framework for Clustering
To ensure a data-driven and replicable clustering method, a multi-criteria decision-making approach is
adopted. Let 1 2 3 4
, , , ,...С С С С С= represent the set of clusters, where each cluster iС is defined by
parameters, represented in Tab. 5.
Table 5. Key Operational Parameters for SLB Feasibility Assessment
Parameter Notation Description
Load Level ,load iP Average power demand of the substation (kW)
Outage Duration ,outage iT Average duration of power outages (hours)
Frequency of Outages ,outage iF Number of outages per year
Required Reserve Power ,reserve iP Minimum backup power needed to sustain operations (kW)
Required Reserve Energy ,reserve iE Minimum stored energy required for uninterrupted operation (kWh)
Available Battery Installation
Area
,battery iA Space available for SLB system deployment (m²)
Available Solar Panel Area ,PV iA Space available for PV system integration (m²)
Load Coefficient
,load i
Ratio of actual load to nominal capacity of the substation
Idle Power
,idle iP
Power consumption in idle (standby) mode
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 51
Parameter Notation Description
Short-Circuit Power
,SC iP
Short-term power during fault conditions, useful for estimating peak
current levels
Energy Balance of the Node
,node iB
Difference between generation and consumption in the node
Sensitivity to Voltage
Fluctuations
,sens iV
The degree to which a substation is affected by voltage regulation
precision
Using these parameters, the fo rmal equation for cluster classification can be defined as follows:
, , , , ,, , , ,...,i load i outage i outage i reserve i reserve i iС P T F P E Х= (1)
Multi-Criteria Decision Model for SLB Feasibility
While clustering substations establishes a structured foundation for backup power planning, selecting
the most appropriate energy storage solution for each cluster requires a systematic decision-making
framework. The Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) approach is used to evaluate the feasibility of
SLBs by considering multiple operational parameters, ensuring that technical, economic, and spatial factors
are incorporated into the final selection process.
To quantify SLB feasibility, a weighted scoring model is introduced. Each parameter influences the
selection process differently, and their importance is reflected through weighting coefficients (WWW),
which help rank substations based on their suitability for SLB deployment.
The SLB Suitability Score ( ,SLB iS ) is calculated using the following equation:
, 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , ...SLB i load i outage i outage i reserve i reserve i n iS P T F P E X = + + + + + + , (2)
where 1 , 2 , 3 ,…, n - weight coefficients reflecting the impact of each parameter.
The SLB Suitability Score ,SLB iS determines the most appropriate backup power strategy:
• If , minSLB iS S → SLBs alone are insufficient; hybrid solutions (SLB + Diesel) are required.
• If min , mSLB i idS S S → SLBs can be partially deployed, with solar PV integration optimizing
performance.
• If , maxSLB iS S → SLBs are fully viable as a standalone backup power solution.
To ensure efficient deployment of second-life batteries, substations are categorized into clusters based
on key operational parameters: load level, frequency of outages, required reserve capacity, and duration of
outages. Each cluster represents a unique set of conditions, formalized mathematically as a subset of
operational parameters. Tab. 6 outlines these clusters, specifying the required number of batteries and space
for deployment.
Table 6. Proposed Clustering of Substations for Secondary Battery Deployment
Cluster
Load
Level
Frequency of
Outages
Voltage
Level (kV)
Reserve
Power (kW)
Outage
Duration (hrs)
Required
Energy (kWh)
Number of
Batteries
Required
Area (m²)
C1 High Stochastic 330–750 150 1–2 150–300 5–8 20–30
C2 Medium Occasional 110–220 100 2–3 200–300 6–10 25–35
C3 Low Moderate 35–110 50 3–4 150–200 4–6 15–25
C4 Minimal Frequent 6–35 30 4–6 120–180 3–4 10–15
The determination of reserve power capacity for each cluster is based on the load level and criticality
of consumers, which depend on the substation category. High-load substations (C1) serve strategic facilities
and large industrial consumers, necessitating a significant reserve capacity to ensure uninterrupted operation.
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 52
Medium-load (C2) and low-load (C3) substations cater to less critical facilities, resulting in lower reserve
energy requirements. Minimal-load clusters (C4) include facilities where short-term power interruptions are
not critical, leading to the lowest reserve energy needs.
The outage duration was determined based on historical outage data and the response time for power
restoration across different substation categories. High-voltage substations (C1, C2) typically have more
advanced redundancy schemes, reducing downtime. In contrast, smaller substations (C3, C4), which supply
local networks, may experience longer outages due to limited access to alternative power sources and the
need for mobile backup solutions. The number of required batteries was calculated considering the average
load level of each substation and the available usable capacity of second-life batteries. The calculation
assumes a nominal battery capacity of 40 kWh, with 80 % of its energy being effectively usable (32 kWh).
This approach ensures realistic estimates of the number of batteries required for each cluster, providing
sufficient energy reserves to maintain the substation's essential functions throughout the projected outage
duration. By associating each cluster with specific operational parameters, it becomes feasible to optimize
both the number of batteries and the area required for installation. This approach enhances resource
efficiency and ensures scalability, aligning with the diverse demands of Ukraine’s power system.
Tailored strategies for each cluster involve modeling degradation rates, assessing economic and
environmental impacts, and determining optimal battery capacities. This clustering framework supports a
holistic approach to integrating SLBsinto Ukraine’s power system, ensuring resilience, sustainability, and
cost-effectiveness across all operational scenarios. HV Substations are indispensable for grid stability, and
their backup systems must evolve to address modern challenges. SLBs emerge as a compelling alternative to
diesel generators, offering faster response times, lower costs, and environmental benefits. By clustering
substations based on operational characteristics, it is possible to maximize the effectiveness of battery
systems while minimizing costs.
3.2. Economic and Operational Analysis of Second-Life Battery Deployment
The current approaches to backup power systems rely predominantly on traditional solutions such as
diesel generators and new battery technologies. While these systems have been effective historically, they
face mounting limitations in today’s context of economic constraints, environmental demands, and evolving
grid requirements. Diesel generators contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and incur high
operational costs, whereas new battery systems often require substantial upfront investments. Despite these
challenges, the potential of SLBs as a cost-effective, sustainable, and technically viable alternative remains
largely untapped due to the lack of a comprehensive methodological framework.
The absence of a unified methodology for SLBs limits their integration into power systems, leaving
many opportunities unexplored. Existing studies often focus on individual aspects, such as battery aging or
economic feasibility, without considering the broader implications of lifecycle optimization, operational
diversity, and sustainability. Developing a robust methodology is essential to address the technical
complexities of SLB deployment, including their varying degradation patterns, compatibility with existing
systems, and ability to enhance grid reliability. Such a framework would ensure that SLBs are not only
economically viable but also operationally efficient and environmentally beneficial.
To effectively evaluate the feasibility of deploying SLBs for substation backup power, it is critical to
establish well-defined scenario parameters. These parameters provide the foundational data required to
model battery performance, cost implications, and operational dynamics across different clusters of
substations. Key metrics such as load demand, outage frequency, required backup duration, and energy
storage capacity are essential to tailoring solutions that meet the unique needs of each cluster. By addressing
these parameters, the analysis ensures that battery deployment strategies align with the operational realities
of Ukraine’s power grid.
The methodology for deploying SLBs across different substation clusters is grounded in a systematic
approach that evaluates technical, economic, and operational parameters. Central to this approach is the
calculation of the required reserve capacity for each cluster, based on outage durations and energy demands.
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 53
The reserve capacity ,reserve iQ is determined as follows:
,reserve i load outageQ P T= , (3)
where loadP represents the load demand and outageT is the expected outage duration in hrs. This ensures that
the battery systems are appropriately sized to meet the backup requirements of each cluster.
Once the reserve capacity is established, the number of SLB units required SLBN is calculated by
dividing the reserve capacity by the capacity of a single SLB unit:
reserve
SLB
SLB unit
Q
N
Q −
= . (4)
This calculation ensures efficient utilization of available battery units while meeting the operational
demands of each cluster. The cost implications, including equipment, installation, and maintenance, are
subsequently derived based on the number of SLB units.
Economic assessment incorporates both initial and operational costs. The total equipment cost
equipmentC is determined as follows:
equipment SLB SLB unitC N C −= . (5)
Tab. 7 presents the calculated parameters for deploying SLBs across four distinct substation clusters.
These parameters include outage durations, required reserve capacities, the number of SLB units, and
associated costs. By addressing the unique operational characteristics of each cluster, the table provides a
detailed roadmap for cost-effective and reliable SLB deployment. The values highlight the tailored strategies
necessary to optimize backup power solutions, demonstrating the economic and environmental advantages of
SLB integration.
Table 7. Cluster-Specific Battery Requirements and Costs
Parameter Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4
Reserve Power (kW) 150 100 50 30
Outage Duration (hrs) 1–2 2–3 3–4 4–6
Required Energy (kWh) 150–300 200–300 150–200 120–180
SLB Unit Capacity (kWh, effective 80%) 32 32 32 32
Number of SLB Units Required 5–10 7–10 5–7 4–6
Cost per SLB Unit (₴) 79,385 79,385 79,385 79,385
Total Equipment Cost (₴) 396,925–793,850 555,695–793,850 396,925–555,695 317,540–476,310
Installation Cost per Unit (₴) 2,340 2,340 2,340 2,340
Total Installation Cost (₴) 11,700–23,400 16,380–23,400 11,700–16,380 9,360–14,040
Maintenance Cost per Unit (₴/year) 970 970 970 970
Total Maintenance Cost (₴/year) 4,850–9,700 6,790–9,700 4,850–6,790 3,880–5,820
Estimated Battery Degradation per Year (%) 5–6 4–5 3–4 3–4
Expected Battery Lifespan (years) 5–7 6–8 7–9 8–10
The parameters outlined in Table 6 underscore the diversity of requirements across substation clusters.
From high-demand, high-frequency outages in urban areas to the lower demand yet critical reliability needs
in rural substations, these distinctions highlight the necessity of customized battery solutions. Accurate
modeling of these parameters ensures that deployment strategies are both technically feasible and
economically viable.
Building upon the initial scenario parameters, Table 6 synthesizes the economic and operational
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 54
implications for each substation cluster. This table captures the projected capital expenditures, annual
operational costs, and energy output efficiency for deploying second-life batteries.
Battery degradation is a critical factor influencing the performance and longevity of energy storage
systems, including second-life EV batteries. Degradation occurs due to a combination of cyclic and calendar
aging, with the rate and extent of degradation varying significantly across different applications and
operational conditions. For instance, stationary energy storage systems often experience slower degradation
compared to mobile applications, owing to less dynamic operating conditions and optimized usage patterns
[63‒65]. To address these complexities, an integral degradation index has been developed [66], which
incorporates both cyclic and calendar aging factors. This index provides a comprehensive assessment of the
remaining capacity and operational lifespan of second-life batteries. It is particularly valuable in planning
and optimizing battery usage for backup power systems, ensuring both reliability and economic efficiency in
deployment. The inclusion of this index in the analysis enhances the ability to predict performance and
schedule maintenance effectively, thereby maximizing the utility of second-life batteries in energy storage
applications [66].
Additionally, metrics such as break-even time and emissions reductions highlight the broader
economic and environmental impacts of these solutions.By correlating these metrics with the specific
requirements of each cluster, this analysis provides actionable insights into how SLBs can be optimally
utilized to enhance the resilience and sustainability of Ukraine’s power system.
The integration of SLBs into HV Substations not only enhances reliability but also supports broader
goals of sustainability and resilience. Future efforts should focus on detailed data collection, modeling, and
pilot projects to refine this approach and unlock its full potential.
3.3. Cluster-Based Planning for Second-Life Battery Integration
Clustering HV Substations based on operational characteristics is essential for optimizing the
deployment of SLBs. Tab.8 provides tailored recommendations for each cluster, focusing on the specific
requirements of substations and the optimal configurations for SLBs to meet these needs.
Table 8. Cluster-Specific SLB Feasibility and Deployment Framework
Cluster SLB Feasibility Primary
Requirements
Recommendations Expected Impact
C1 (High Load,
Rare Outages,
Critical
Infrastructure)
Possible with
Hybrid Backup
(SLB + Diesel
Genset)
High power output,
rapid response,
robust cycle
performance.
Deploy SLBs with high discharge
rates and cycle life. Integrate with
smart monitoring systems to manage
frequent cycles. Hybrid backup with
diesel gensets is recommended.
✓ Enhanced reliability
during outages,
✓ reduced reliance on
diesel generators,
✓ lower operational costs.
C2 (Medium
Load, Occasional
Outages, Key
Substations)
Suitable (SLB or
SLB + PV for
Optimization)
Sustained energy
capacity for
prolonged outages.
Use modular SLB systems with high
energy density. Consider hybrid
systems integrating SLBs and
renewable sources like solar.
✓ Continuous service to
critical facilities,
✓ optimized cost and
resource efficiency,
✓ reduced emissions.
C3 (Low Load,
Moderate
Outages,
Regional Nodes)
Fully Suitable for
Standalone SLB
Solutions
Minimal active
cycles, longevity
during standby
periods.
Select SLBs with low self-discharge
rates and long calendar life. Ensure
minimal maintenance requirements.
✓ Long-term viability,
✓ cost-effective solutions
for remote areas,
✓ reduced need for
frequent battery
replacements.
C4 (Minimal
Load, Frequent
Outages, Rural
Areas)
Ideal for SLB
Deployment
Scalable capacity,
fast integration,
high reliability.
Implement scalable SLB systems to
adapt to changing load profiles. Use
advanced energy management
systems for peak shaving and load
balancing.
✓ Increased grid resilience,
✓ optimized urban energy
✓ infrastructure, improved
sustainability.
The successful adoption of SLBs as a solution for backup power in Ukraine’s power system requires
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 55
not only technological advancements and operational strategies but also a robust legislative framework.
Addressing gaps in regulation and policy will ensure a streamlined deployment process, economic feasibility,
and alignment with national and international sustainability goals. To facilitate the effective deployment and
integration of SLBs in Ukraine's power system, targeted legislative and regulatory European and Ukrainian
frameworks are essential [67‒72].
To ensure that Ukraine's efforts to integrate SLBs into its energy infrastructure align with best
practices and facilitate international collaboration, it is essential to harmonize national legislation with
established European and global standards.European Union (EU) directives, such as the Battery Regulation
[67], emphasize the importance of sustainability, lifecycle management, and recycling of batteries. By
adopting these guidelines, Ukraine can foster compatibility with EU market requirements and create
opportunities for cross-border trade and technology transfer. Furthermore, aligning with standards set by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) will enhance safety, performance, and environmental compliance.
Adopting European and international standards positions Ukraine to integrate SLBs effectively while
fostering collaboration and trade with global partners. These measures will also enhance the safety,
performance, and sustainability of battery systems, creating a foundation for long-term energy resilience.
Legislative alignment is not merely a compliance activity but a strategic move to modernize Ukraine's energy
sector and align it with global sustainability goals. Tab. 9 below outlines key legislative actions, categorized
into policy areas, specific measures, and their expected impact on facilitating the integration of SLBs into
critical energy infrastructure.
Table 9. Legislative Recommendations for Supporting SLBs in Backup Power Systems
Area of Focus Recommendation Justification
Safety and Performance
Standards
Develop and implement national standards for
SLB safety and performance.
Ensures SLBs meet safety and operational
benchmarks, fostering trust among
stakeholders.
Incentives for Adoption Introduce tax breaks, grants, or subsidies for
SLB deployment.
Offsets high initial costs, encouraging adoption
in critical sectors.
Circular Economy Policies Mandate recycling and repurposing of EV
batteries for second-life applications.
Promotes sustainable resource use and reduces
environmental impacts.
Energy Market Integration Recognize and incentivize SLBs in energy
markets for ancillary services.
Makes SLB deployment economically viable
and supports grid stability.
Pilot Projects Support public-private pilot projects to
demonstrate SLB deployment.
Validates technical and economic feasibility,
creating a basis for large-scale adoption.
Data Sharing Requirements Mandate data collection and sharing on SLB
performance.
Improves models for degradation, capacity
estimation, and operational efficiency.
European Standards
Alignment
Align national legislation with European
standards for SLBs.
Facilitates cross-border collaboration, trade,
and access to advanced technologies.
Implementing the legislative actions outlined in Table 8 can significantly accelerate the adoption of
SLBs in Ukraine's energy infrastructure. By creating clear regulatory pathways, offering financial incentives,
and ensuring alignment with sustainability goals, these measures address key barriers to deployment.
Furthermore, the integration of SLBs will enhance the resilience of Ukraine's power grid, reducing
dependency on fossil fuels and supporting the transition to a low-carbon economy. Such initiatives not only
bolster energy security but also position Ukraine as a leader in sustainable energy innovation in the region.
Legislative action in these areas will create a supportive ecosystem for second-life batteries, ensuring their
effective integration into Ukraine's energy infrastructure and contributing to a sustainable and resilient
energy future.
4. Conclusions
This study presents a comprehensive framework for deploying second-life EV batteries as reliable and
Системні дослідження в енергетиці. 2025. 1(81) 56
sustainable backup power solutions in Ukraine’s energy system. The research highlights the critical role of
HV substations in maintaining grid stability and emphasizes the vulnerabilities of traditional backup
solutions, such as diesel generators and new lithium-ion batteries, especially regarding their cost,
environmental impact, and operational performance. The comparison between diesel generators and LIBs
demonstrates distinct trade-offs, where despite the higher initial cost of batteries, they offer significant long-
term cost savings and environmental benefits.
The proposed cluster-based approach allows for a more nuanced and effective distribution of second-
life batteries across substations with different energy requirements. While substations generally have similar
technical capabilities and nominal power ratings, their energy needs vary greatly depending on their location
in the grid. Some substations are in energy-deficient areas where demand often exceeds local generation,
requiring larger reserves, while others are in self-sufficient regions with abundant energy resources and may
need less backup power. This variability in energy demands and conditions across different substations
makes a one-size-fits-all solution inefficient.
Therefore, the use of a clustering methodology enables precise resource allocation by grouping
substations into categories based on their load profiles, energy balance, and operational conditions. This
tailored approach ensures that each substation is equipped with an optimal level of backup power, reducing
unnecessary costs while improving system reliability and supporting the integration of sustainable energy
solutions. The clustering method takes into account the unique conditions of each substation, including the
availability of space for batteries, the criticality of infrastructure, and the frequency and duration of outages.
This more granular approach provides an effective solution to optimize battery deployment across the grid,
ensuring that each region receives the appropriate backup support, enhancing both economic and
environmental efficiency.
This study demonstrates that second-life batteries, when strategically deployed based on these clusters,
can reduce costs, improve system resilience, and support a more sustainable energy infrastructure. By
integrating these solutions with renewable energy sources such as solar panels, SLBs can further enhance the
sustainability and operational efficiency of the power grid. Furthermore, the findings highlight the
importance of legislative and financial support to facilitate the widespread adoption of SLBs, creating an
environment conducive to the long-term success of these technologies.
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КЛАСТЕРНИЙ ПІДХІД ДО ВИКОРИСТАННЯ ВТОРИННИХ
БАТАРЕЙ ЕЛЕКТРОТРАНСПОРТУ ДЛЯ НАДІЙНОГО ТА
СТАЛОГО РЕЗЕРВНОГО ЖИВЛЕННЯ В ЕНЕРГОСИСТЕМАХ
Ганна Костенко, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8839-7633
Інститут загальної енергетики НАН України, вул. Антоновича, 172, м. Київ, 03150,
Україна
e-mail: Kostenko_HP@nas.gov.ua
Анотація. У надзвичайних ситуаціях забезпечення енергосистеми надійним резервним живленням
критично важливе для стабільності та безперебійної роботи інфраструктури. Виклики воєнного
часу та зростаюча вразливість енергетичної інфраструктури, зокрема високовольтних
підстанцій, потребують інноваційних підходів, які поєднують економічну ефективність, технічну
надійність та сталий розвиток. Метою даного дослідження є розробка комплексних рішень для
забезпечення резервного живлення високовольтних підстанцій України, що відповідають
сучасним викликам енергетичної безпеки та екологічної сталості. У статті розглядається
потенціал вторинних батарей електромобілів як перспективної альтернативи традиційним
рішенням, зокрема дизельним генераторам. Використання вторинних батарей пропонує новий
підхід до забезпечення енергетичної ефективності та сталого розвитку. Кластерний підхід,
застосований у дослідженні, дозволяє оптимізувати розподіл ресурсів між підстанціями,
враховуючи рівень навантаження, частоту відключень та необхідну резервну потужність. Це
забезпечує адаптацію рішень до специфічних потреб кожного кластера, підвищуючи
ефективність використання ресурсів. У ході дослідження виконано детальну оцінку економічних,
технічних і екологічних характеристик різних рішень, включаючи дизельні генератори, нові
батареї та вторинні батареї, у тому числі в комбінації з відновлюваними джерелами енергії,
такими як фотоелектричні модулі. Результати дослідження показують, що вторинні батареї,
особливо в комбінації з ВДЕ, забезпечують переваги, такі як зниження витрат, скорочення
викидів CO₂ та підвищення енергетичної стійкості. Запропоновані рекомендації для
впровадження вторинних батарей охоплюють законодавчі, технічні та економічні аспекти, з
акцентом на створенні сприятливих умов для їх інтеграції. Це дослідження пропонує дорожню
карту для інтеграції вторинних батарей електромобілів як стійкого і масштабованого рішення
для підтримки енергетичної безпеки, переходу до низьковуглецевої економіки та підвищення
стійкості енергосистеми України.
Ключові слова: інтеграція вторинних батарей, резервне живлення, енергетична стійкість,
високовольтні підстанції, кластерний підхід, сталий розвиток, циркулярна економіка.
Надійшла до редколегії: 09.01.2025
https://thebatterypass.eu/assets/images/content-guidance/pdf/2023_Battery_Passport_Content_Guidance_Executive_Summary.pdf
https://thebatterypass.eu/assets/images/content-guidance/pdf/2023_Battery_Passport_Content_Guidance_Executive_Summary.pdf
mailto:Kostenko_HP@nas.gov.ua
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| id | systemreorg-article-885 |
| institution | System Research in Energy |
| keywords_txt_mv | keywords |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-07-19T01:23:27Z |
| publishDate | 2025 |
| publisher | General Energy Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| record_format | ojs |
| resource_txt_mv | systemreorg/de/426b64a5ad828ca4b74413aef79389de.pdf |
| spelling | systemreorg-article-8852026-07-18T12:57:49Z CLUSTER BASED DEPLOYMENT OF SECOND LIFE EV BATTERIES FOR RELIABLE AND SUSTAINABLE BACKUP POWER SOLUTION IN POWER SYSTEMS Кластерний підхід до використання вторинних батарей електротранспорту для надійного та сталого резервного живлення в енергосистемах Kostenko, Ganna second life batteries integration, backup power, resilience, HV substations, clustering methodology, sustainable development. інтеграція вторинних батарей, резервне живлення, енергетична стійкість, високовольтні підстанції, кластерний підхід, сталий розвиток, циркулярна економіка. In emergency situations, ensuring reliable backup power sources for the power system is critically important for maintaining the stability and uninterrupted operation of energy infrastructure. The challenges posed by wartime conditions and the growing vulnerability of energy infrastructure, particularly HVsubstations, demand innovative approaches that combine economic efficiency, technical reliability, and environmental sustainability. The aim of this study is to develop comprehensive solutions for providing reliable and sustainable backup power to Ukraine's HVsubstations, addressing contemporary challenges in energy security and environmental resilience. The paper examines the potential of second life electric vehicle (EV) batteries as a promising alternative to traditional solutions, such as diesel generators. The use of second life batteries offers a novel approach that meets modern requirements for energy efficiency and sustainable development. The clustering methodology employed in the study enables the optimization of resource allocation among substations, considering factors such as load levels, outage frequency, and required reserve capacity. This approach ensures tailored solutions for the specific operational needs of each cluster, enhancing resource utilization efficiency. The study includes a detailed evaluation of the economic, technical, and environmental characteristics of various solutions, including diesel generators, new batteries, and second life batteries, both independently and in combination with renewable energy sources such as photovoltaic modules. The results demonstrate that second life batteries, particularly when integrated with renewable energy sources, offer substantial advantages, including cost reductions, decreased CO₂ emissions, and enhanced energy resilience. The proposed recommendations for implementing second life batteries are supported by a comprehensive analysis of legislative, technical, and economic aspects. This study provides a roadmap for integrating second life EV batteries as a sustainable and scalable solution to strengthen energy security, facilitate the transition to a low carbon economy, and enhance the resilience of Ukraine's power system. У надзвичайних ситуаціях забезпечення енергосистеми надійним резервним живленням критично важливе для стабільності та безперебійної роботи інфраструктури. Виклики воєнного часу та зростаюча вразливість енергетичної інфраструктури, зокрема високовольтних підстанцій, потребують інноваційних підходів, які поєднують економічну ефективність, технічну надійність та сталий розвиток. Метою даного дослідження є розробка комплексних рішень для забезпечення резервного живлення високовольтних підстанцій України, що відповідають сучасним викликам енергетичної безпеки та екологічної сталості. У статті розглядається потенціал вторинних батарей електромобілів як перспективної альтернативи традиційним рішенням, зокрема дизельним генераторам. Використання вторинних батарей пропонує новий підхід до забезпечення енергетичної ефективності та сталого розвитку. Кластерний підхід, застосований у дослідженні, дозволяє оптимізувати розподіл ресурсів між підстанціями, враховуючи рівень навантаження, частоту відключень та необхідну резервну потужність. Це забезпечує адаптацію рішень до специфічних потреб кожного кластера, підвищуючи ефективність використання ресурсів. У ході дослідження виконано детальну оцінку економічних, технічних і екологічних характеристик різних рішень, включаючи дизельні генератори, нові батареї та вторинні батареї, у тому числі в комбінації з відновлюваними джерелами енергії, такими як фотоелектричні модулі. Результати дослідження показують, що вторинні батареї, особливо в комбінації з ВДЕ, забезпечують переваги, такі як зниження витрат, скорочення викидів CO₂ та підвищення енергетичної стійкості. Запропоновані рекомендації для впровадження вторинних батарей охоплюють законодавчі, технічні та економічні аспекти, з акцентом на створенні сприятливих умов для їх інтеграції. Це дослідження пропонує дорожню карту для інтеграції вторинних батарей електромобілів як стійкого і масштабованого рішення для підтримки енергетичної безпеки, переходу до низьковуглецевої економіки та підвищення стійкості енергосистеми України. General Energy Institute of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine 2025-02-27 Article Article application/pdf https://systemre.org/index.php/journal/article/view/885 10.15407/srenergy2025.01.040 System Research in Energy; No. 1 (81) (2025): System Research in Energy; 40-60 Системні дослідження в енергетиці; № 1 (81) (2025): Системні дослідження в енергетиці; 40-60 2786-7102 2786-7633 en https://systemre.org/index.php/journal/article/view/885/793 Copyright (c) 2025 Ganna Kostenko https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0 |
| spellingShingle | second life batteries integration backup power resilience HV substations clustering methodology sustainable development. Kostenko, Ganna CLUSTER BASED DEPLOYMENT OF SECOND LIFE EV BATTERIES FOR RELIABLE AND SUSTAINABLE BACKUP POWER SOLUTION IN POWER SYSTEMS |
| title | CLUSTER BASED DEPLOYMENT OF SECOND LIFE EV BATTERIES FOR RELIABLE AND SUSTAINABLE BACKUP POWER SOLUTION IN POWER SYSTEMS |
| title_alt | Кластерний підхід до використання вторинних батарей електротранспорту для надійного та сталого резервного живлення в енергосистемах |
| title_full | CLUSTER BASED DEPLOYMENT OF SECOND LIFE EV BATTERIES FOR RELIABLE AND SUSTAINABLE BACKUP POWER SOLUTION IN POWER SYSTEMS |
| title_fullStr | CLUSTER BASED DEPLOYMENT OF SECOND LIFE EV BATTERIES FOR RELIABLE AND SUSTAINABLE BACKUP POWER SOLUTION IN POWER SYSTEMS |
| title_full_unstemmed | CLUSTER BASED DEPLOYMENT OF SECOND LIFE EV BATTERIES FOR RELIABLE AND SUSTAINABLE BACKUP POWER SOLUTION IN POWER SYSTEMS |
| title_short | CLUSTER BASED DEPLOYMENT OF SECOND LIFE EV BATTERIES FOR RELIABLE AND SUSTAINABLE BACKUP POWER SOLUTION IN POWER SYSTEMS |
| title_sort | cluster based deployment of second life ev batteries for reliable and sustainable backup power solution in power systems |
| topic | second life batteries integration backup power resilience HV substations clustering methodology sustainable development. |
| topic_facet | second life batteries integration backup power resilience HV substations clustering methodology sustainable development. інтеграція вторинних батарей резервне живлення енергетична стійкість високовольтні підстанції кластерний підхід сталий розвиток циркулярна економіка. |
| url | https://systemre.org/index.php/journal/article/view/885 |
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