SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER: SCIENCE FICTION OR A NEAR-FUTURE REALITY
The global energy demand is experiencing a rapid in-crease, with projections suggesting a potential doubling or 50% growth in the coming years. In response, the exploration of alter-native power generation methods has become imperative. Pho-tovoltaic power plants, while harnessing clean energy from...
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Institute of Renewable Energy National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
2025
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Vidnovluvana energetika| _version_ | 1871103872062193664 |
|---|---|
| author | Matushkin , D. Bosak, A. |
| author_facet | Matushkin , D. Bosak, A. |
| author_institution_txt_mv | [
{
"author": "D. Matushkin ",
"institution": "General Energy Institute, National Academy of Science of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine"
},
{
"author": "A. Bosak",
"institution": "National Technical University of Ukraine «Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute», Kyiv, Ukraine"
}
] |
| author_sort | Matushkin , D. |
| baseUrl_str | https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/oai |
| collection | OJS |
| datestamp_date | 2026-07-18T06:32:21Z |
| description | The global energy demand is experiencing a rapid in-crease, with projections suggesting a potential doubling or 50% growth in the coming years. In response, the exploration of alter-native power generation methods has become imperative. Pho-tovoltaic power plants, while harnessing clean energy from the sun, face limitations due to their reliance on weather conditions and extensive land requirements. Space-based solar power offers a compelling alternative, providing the capa-bility to deliver continuous, carbon-free electricity with a power density exceeding that of terrestrial alternatives by more than tenfold while necessitating significantly less land.Space-based solar power systems operate by collecting and converting solar energy in space, which is then transmitted wirelessly to Earth using microwaves or lasers to generate electricity. However, achieving this po-tential requires overcoming substantial technological challenges, particularly in the domain of wireless power transmission over long distances to effectively reach ground-based receivers.As the drive towards net-zero emissions intensifies, Space-based solar power is increasingly recognized as a viable option. This paper offers an overview of Space-based solar power as an integrated system. It introduces cutting-edge advancements, including system properties and modern Space-based solar power concept archi-tectures, and examines their applications and spillover effects across various sectors. Additionally, the paper addresses the challenges and risks associated with Space-based solar power, emphasizing key barriers to suc-cessful implementation. Despite the availability of much of the requisite technology, its efficiency remains in-sufficient for practical deployment. Nevertheless, with the participation of private enterprises in the space race and ongoing advancements in system efficiency, the overall costs of Space-based solar power are decreasing. With continued progress and sustained investment, Space-based solar power, in conjunction with other renew-able technologies, holds the potential to significantly contribute to cross-sector decarbonization. Ref. 68. Fig. 9. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.36296/1819-8058.2025.1(80).70-81 |
| first_indexed | 2025-07-17T11:39:51Z |
| format | Article |
| fulltext |
70
Відновлювана енергетика. №1/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
UDK 629.78:621.311:621.039 https://doi.org/10.36296/1819-8058.2025.1(80)70-81
SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER: SCIENCE FICTION OR A NEAR-FUTURE REALITY
Received Sep. 04, 2024; accepted Mar. 14, 2025
Available online Apr. 01, 2025
Matushkin D.1, Bosak. A.2
Author for correspondence: Matushkin Dmytro,
e-mail: dmitry.matushkin@ukr.net
Abstract. The global energy demand is experiencing a rapid in-
crease, with projections suggesting a potential doubling or 50%
growth in the coming years. In response, the exploration of alter-
native power generation methods has become imperative. Pho-
tovoltaic power plants, while harnessing clean energy from the
sun, face limitations due to their reliance on weather conditions
and extensive land requirements. Space-based solar power offers a compelling alternative, providing the capa-
bility to deliver continuous, carbon-free electricity with a power density exceeding that of terrestrial alternatives
by more than tenfold while necessitating significantly less land.
Space-based solar power systems operate by collecting and converting solar energy in space, which is then
transmitted wirelessly to Earth using microwaves or lasers to generate electricity. However, achieving this po-
tential requires overcoming substantial technological challenges, particularly in the domain of wireless power
transmission over long distances to effectively reach ground-based receivers.
As the drive towards net-zero emissions intensifies, Space-based solar power is increasingly recognized as a
viable option. This paper offers an overview of Space-based solar power as an integrated system. It introduces
cutting-edge advancements, including system properties and modern Space-based solar power concept archi-
tectures, and examines their applications and spillover effects across various sectors. Additionally, the paper
addresses the challenges and risks associated with Space-based solar power, emphasizing key barriers to suc-
cessful implementation. Despite the availability of much of the requisite technology, its efficiency remains in-
sufficient for practical deployment. Nevertheless, with the participation of private enterprises in the space race
and ongoing advancements in system efficiency, the overall costs of Space-based solar power are decreasing.
With continued progress and sustained investment, Space-based solar power, in conjunction with other renew-
able technologies, holds the potential to significantly contribute to cross-sector decarbonization. Ref. 68. Fig. 9.
Keywords: space-based solar power, solar power satellites, sustainable energy, solar power plant, photo-voltaic
plant, solar energy.
СОНЯЧНА ЕНЕРГІЯ З КОСМОСУ: НАУКОВА ФАНТАСТИКА ЧИ РЕАЛЬНІСТЬ НАЙБЛИЖЧОГО
МАЙБУТНЬОГО
Отримано 04 вер. 2024 р.; рекомендовано до публікації 14 бер. 2025 р.
Доступно онлайн 01 квіт. 2025 р.
Матушкін Д. С.1, Босак А. В.2
Автор для кореспонденції: Матушкін Дмитро,
e-mail: dmitry.matushkin@ukr.net
Анотація. Світовий попит на енергію стрімко зростає, і про-
гнози вказують на його потенційне подвоєння або зростання
на 50 % найближчими роками. З огляду на це зростає пот-
реба в дослідженні альтернативних методів виробництва
енергії. Фотоелектричні станції, хоча й використовують чи-
сту енергію Сонця, мають обмеження через залежність від погодних умов та потребу у великих площах
1 PhD
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4431-7862
2 Cand. of Tech. Sciences., Assoc. Prof.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0545-9980
1 General Energy Institute, National Academy
of Science of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
2 National Technical University of Ukraine
«Igor Sikorsky Kyiv Polytechnic Institute»,
Kyiv, Ukraine
1 д-р філософії
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4431-7862
2 канд. техн. наук, доцент
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0545-9980
1 Інститут загальної енергетики НАН
України, м. Київ, Україна
2 Національний технічний університет
України «Київський політехнічний інститут
імені Ігоря Сікорського», м. Київ, Україна
71
Відновлювана енергетика. №1/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
землі. Космічна сонячна енергія видається привабливою альтернативою, забезпечуючи можливість
безперервного постачання безвуглецевої електроенергії з густиною потужності, що перевищує назе-
мні аналоги більш ніж у десять разів, при цьому потребуючи значно менше земельної площі.
Системи космічної сонячної енергії працюють за принципом збирання та перетворення сонячної енергії
в космосі, яка потім передається бездротовим шляхом на Землю за допомогою мікрохвиль або лазерів
для генерації електроенергії. Проте для реалізації цього потенціалу необхідно подолати значні техно-
логічні виклики, зокрема у сфері бездротової передачі енергії на великі відстані для ефективного досяг-
нення наземних приймачів.
Зважаючи на посилення прагнення до досягнення нульових викидів СО2, космічна сонячна енергія дедалі
більше визнається як реалістичний варіант. У цій статті надано загальний огляд космічної сонячної
енергії як інтегрованої системи. Розглядаються новітні досягнення, включно з властивостями систем
та сучасними архітектурними концепціями космічної сонячної енергії, а також аналізується їх засто-
сування і вплив на різні сектори. Крім того, у статті висвітлено виклики та ризики, пов’язані з косміч-
ною сонячною енергією, з акцентом на ключові бар’єри, що перешкоджають її успішному впрова-
дженню. Попри наявність багатьох необхідних технологій, їхня ефективність поки що недостатня для
практичного використання. Проте із залученням приватних підприємств до космічних перегонів та по-
стійним удосконаленням системної ефективності, загальні витрати на космічну сонячну енергію зме-
ншуються. За умови продовження прогресу та постійних інвестицій, космічна сонячна енергія, у поєд-
нанні з іншими відновлюваними джерелами енергії, має потенціал значно сприяти декарбонізації різних
секторів економіки країн. Бібл. 68. Рис. 9.
Ключові слова: космічна сонячна енергія, супутники сонячної енергії, стійка енергетика, сонячна елект-
ростанція, фотоелектрична станція, сонячна енергія.
List of used designations and abbreviations:
SBSP – space-based solar power
AM – air mass
PV – photovoltaic
HCPV – High Concentration Photovoltaics
GEO – Geostationary Earth Orbit
LEO – Low Earth Orbit
MEO – Medium Earth Orbit
LCOE – Levelized Cost of Energy
SD – solar dynamic
RF – radio frequency
Introduction. Global energy consumption is projected to
double or increase by 50% over the next 30 years [1]. This
surge in demand places significant strain on land and re-
sources, compounding the impact of climate change [2].
The pressing need for clean, sustainable, scalable, and se-
cure energy solutions is more critical than ever.
The acceleration of pollution growth is unprecedented,
driven largely by the reliance on coal, natural gas, and oil for
energy production [3]. Traditional energy generation meth-
ods are associated with the emission of harmful substances,
including acid gases, mercury, non-mercury toxins, and or-
ganic air pollutants. Power plants alone contribute approxi-
mately 10 billion tons of CO2 to the atmosphere annually [4].
Estimates suggest that by 2050, the global population could
exceed 10 billion, with over 85% residing in developing
countries [5]. This raises a critical question: How can we
meet the increasing energy demands of humanity without
causing further environmental harm? Relying on fossil fuels
is not a viable solution, as the combustion of coal, oil, and
gas releases carbon dioxide, exacerbating global climate
change (Fig. 1).
Additionally, current fossil fuel reserves are finite. While
nuclear energy mitigates greenhouse gas emissions, it pre-
sents challenges related to nuclear waste disposal.
The generation of renewable energy must become a top
priority as we strive toward a sustainable society [7]. The
sun represents the primary source of energy within our so-
lar system. However, approximately 70% of the solar en-
ergy that reaches the Earth's surface is lost due to the day-
night cycle and inefficiencies in energy utilization [8].
Current solar cell technologies exhibit a range of efficien-
cies: the most advanced cells achieve just over 40% effi-
ciency, while more commonly used solar cells typically
range between 22% and 27% [7].
Thus, energy storage solutions are required, increasing
both the cost and complexity of these technologies. An al-
ternative approach involves using a network of solar-pow-
ered satellites in low Earth orbit. This system could deliver
continuous power to any location, as at least one satellite
would always be in a position to receive sunlight. The con-
cept of solar power satellites (SPS) harnesses solar energy
in space to provide a steady supply of electricity on Earth.
In the context of the global need for a sustainable and
waste-free energy source, the concept of space-based solar
power (SBSP) is gaining increasing relevance. Once consid-
ered merely a science fiction concept, SBSP is now the sub-
ject of active research and development. This idea offers
the prospect of an uninterrupted energy supply by captu-
72
Відновлювана енергетика. №1/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
ring solar radiation in space, where it is continuous and un-
affected by atmospheric conditions.
The SBSP concept involves placing PV panels in Earth's or-
bit, where they can continuously absorb solar energy and
transmit it to Earth via microwave or laser technologies. Re-
cent advancements in aerospace technologies and materi-
als science are opening new possibilities for the realization
of this concept.
Fig. 1. The distribution of CO2 emissions from fuel combustion – encompassing coal, oil, gas, and biomass – between five
developing and five developed countries in 2017 [6]
The purpose of the study. This study will investigate the es-
sential technical, economic, and environmental aspects of
SBSP and evaluate its feasibility as a solution to global en-
ergy challenges. The focus will include an assessment of
current technological advancements, as well as potential
obstacles to SBSP implementation, to determine its viability
in the near future.
The research will delve into SBSP technology, exploring its
structure, components, significance, and necessity for
achieving a sustainable future. It will trace the origins of
SBSP, review existing developments, and analyze various
conceptual approaches.
Methods. This study employed a combination of compara-
tive analysis, expert evaluation, and statistical analysis of
data. The data sources include scientific papers, reports
from international analytical agencies, and publications
from organizations focused on assessing the space-based
solar power potential and challenges of space-based en-
ergy system development in various countries.
SBSP Principles
The Sun delivers approximately 1,37 kW/m² of solar irradi-
ance [9]. With current terrestrial PV technologies, this
amount has been estimated to be sufficient to meet to-
day`s energy demands [10]. Consequently, for photovoltaic
researchers, the primary objective is to enhance the effi-
ciency of solar energy harvesting. This involves not only
improving the intrinsic efficiency of PV devices but also ad-
dressing the inherent limitations of solar energy and ex-
ploring solutions to overcome them.
Terrestrial PV harvesting faces three primary limitations.
First, a significant portion of sunlight is lost in the atmos-
phere due to scattering. Fig. 2 illustrates three distinct spec-
tra: the AM0 spectrum observed just outside Earth`s at-
mosphere, the AM1,5 Direct spectrum at the equator
under oblique incidence, and the AM1,5 Global spectrum
averaged across the globe [11, 12]. Numerically, while AM0
illumination provides up to 1,37 kW/m², AM1,5 illumina-
tion peaks at 1,0 kW/m². The second challenge arises from
the day-night cycle, which ensures that every location on
Earth experiences periods when solar energy cannot be
harvested. This limitation is further complicated by a third
issue: electricity demand tends to increase in the evening
[13-15], necessitating the storage of PV energy generated
during the day, which introduces additional inefficiencies.
These three constraints must be carefully considered and
addressed when designing terrestrial PV panels.
Here, we introduce the concept of SBSP. Fig. 3 illustrates
the operational schematic of this technology. SBSP involves
placing an array of PV cells in orbit around the Earth to cap-
ture solar energy directly from space.
The harvested energy is then transmitted wirelessly to
Earth, typically using a microwave-phased array trans-
73
Відновлювана енергетика. №1/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
mitter. On Earth, the energy is received at rectenna stations
and converted back into usable electricity [17, 18, 20, 26].
Collection and Conversion of Energy
The primary function of the system`s first stage would be
to collect solar energy. This could be achieved using PV cells
or mirrors on a large scale, potentially spanning kilometers.
One of the most challenging aspects of this system is direct-
ing the collected photons toward the conversion mecha-
nism, especially given that current PV cell technology does
not yet meet the desired performance standards. Before
the solar energy can be transmitted, it must be converted
into either microwave or laser energy, which also requires
appropriate power conditioning to enhance efficiency.
While advancements in power electronics have stream-
lined the conversion process, further efficiency improve-
ments are still needed [21]. High Concentration Photovol-
taics (HCPV) could contribute to reducing the system`s
mass, increasing conversion efficiency, and improving heat
dissipation [23].
Fig. 2. Spectral plots of the AM0, AM1.5 Global, and
AM1.5 Direct solar intensity spectra [11, 12]
Fig. 3. Schematic illustrating the operating principles of SBSP [16]
Energy Transmission
This subsystem utilizes microwave power beams to trans-
mit large amounts of power by converting electrical energy
into non-ionizing radio frequencies (RF) and sending it from
the satellite to the receiving station on Earth [23-26]. A crit-
ical focus must be on developing large, efficient power
transmission antennas, as these technologies are inher-
ently inefficient at small scales and cannot be fully vali-
dated without large-scale implementation. Although some
testing has been conducted, further intensive research is
needed to enhance the system`s efficiency and accuracy
[27, 28, 50]. Producing a coherent beam on a flexible
framework presents a significant technological challenge
for the development of SBSP. Additionally, frequency bands
must be allocated and agreed upon at the international
level to prevent interference with existing systems.
The system is divided into several subsystems as shown in
Fig. 4.
Satellite Control, Communication and Maintenance
Satellite maintenance and communication are critical com-
ponents of the system, encompassing activities such as
thermal management, station upkeep, and the operation of
communication and control systems for the satellites.
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Відновлювана енергетика. №1/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
Effective cooling of power electronics and other compo-
nents is essential to enhance performance and reliability
[29, 30]. However, the need for cooling systems in space is
a subject of debate, and further testing is required to un-
derstand thermal load and heat dissipation in the space en-
vironment fully. Contemporary satellite technology may
provide valuable insights into these challenges. Maintain-
ing the satellite`s orbit would necessitate the use of thrust-
ers [31, 32]. For massive structures, scaling and refining
technology is a significant issue, requiring advancements to
reduce structural bulk while maintaining station integrity.
This could be achieved through the use of electric thrusters
and mechanical damping systems.
Satellite control demands the integration of sensors, con-
trol logic, and processing units. The control system for this
application is expected to be far more sophisticated than
those used in existing satellites [33]. Additional sensors will
likely be required to support control systems and respond
to unforeseen threats. Developing resource management
strategies for regulating the antenna beam while ensuring
system security will also be necessary [34]. Constant com-
munication between the satellites and Earth is crucial for
system control and monitoring. Fortunately, with the ad-
vancements in modern communication technologies, com-
munication systems are expected to be among the least
challenging aspects of the overall system [35-37].
Maintaining Angle
In a Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO), an SBSP maintains a con-
stant angle concerning Earth. However, the angle between
the sun-facing solar collector and the Earth-facing micro-
wave transmitter continuously changes. To ensure that the
solar collector remains aligned with the sun, the microwave
beam must always be accurately aimed at the intended loca-
tion on Earth. Conversely, if the microwave beam is aimed at
a fixed point on Earth, the solar collector must continuously
face the sun [18, 38]. Solutions to this challenge include me-
chanical steering and solid-state electrical beam steering.
Fig. 4. System Structure Diagram [18]
Pointing Precision
For designs using mirrors as solar collectors, maintaining
precise alignment is crucial to ensure high solar intensity on
the PV components. The mirrors must be aligned with ex-
treme precision to prevent localized hotspots on the PV
components, which could affect performance [18, 39].
Ground Receives and Converters
Ground systems are generally easier to construct and main-
tain compared to space systems. The rectenna, which con-
verts the transmitted microwave beam into electrical en-
ergy, is a key component of the ground-based receiving
system. Developing this technology is challenging due to
the lack of experience and knowledge in significant
rectenna technology and the inability to test it in Earth's or-
bit. To reduce the size of the space structure, a large an-
tenna area on Earth is required. Although a smaller
rectenna could be used, it would only capture a portion of
the transmitted energy. The size of both the satellite an-
tenna and the Earth's rectenna are interconnected due to
diffraction physics. Tests have shown that the concept is
theoretically viable [18, 40-44].
Terrestrial Distributed and Grid Integration
To integrate the energy into the grid, power conditioning
and reactive power control techniques similar to those
used in PV stations are employed. The simplest step in-
volves using transformers and transmission lines to collect
and deliver electricity from the site to the power grid, uti-
lizing existing infrastructure. A control station will oversee
the satellite, power transmission, conversion, distribution,
and data monitoring [18].
Based on Laser
Laser-based systems operate on a similar principle. In lower
orbits, the satellite will pass over multiple countries. The pro-
ject would need to be a multinational effort, or energy
75
Відновлювана енергетика. №1/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
harvesting would be limited to specific times. In this system,
solar energy is converted into laser beams by solid-state laser
systems, which are then directed to a ground station where
they are converted into electrical energy [45, 46].
Mission Flexibility
The design of a SBSP satellite can be tailored to its target
orbit to optimize power generation and utilization across
its operational period. For instance, satellites in Geosta-
tionary Earth Orbit (GEO) are designed to maximize power
output and provide continuous energy, leveraging the sta-
ble orbital position. In contrast, satellites placed in Low
Earth Orbit (LEO) or Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) offer greater
adaptability, allowing for a more flexible approach to en-
ergy provision while potentially reducing costs. This adapt-
ability can enable mission flexibility, allowing for smaller-
scale development satellites to cater to a variety of appli-
cations. Such applications include supplying power to re-
search facilities in remote or polar regions where fuel costs
are prohibitively high, supporting disaster relief efforts, and
meeting the energy needs of military operations. By em-
ploying different orbits and leveraging the specific advan-
tages of each, the SBSP system can address diverse energy
requirements and enhance overall mission versatility [47].
Materials and Technology Innovations
Materials and technology used in SBSP systems represent
significant challenges. Although the foundational technolo-
gies are in place, their performance still requires substantial
enhancement. Currently, space stations and satellites use
PV panels, and while lightweight gallium arsenide (GaAs) PV
cells are commercially available with efficiencies of around
30-35%, these levels are still inadequate for the demanding
requirements of SBSP applications [18, 48].
Regarding rectenna technology, size, and cost have histori-
cally posed challenges. However, recent advancements
suggest progress in this area. On March 3, researchers at
Caltech successfully demonstrated wireless power transfer
using an array of lightweight, flexible microwave power
transmitters. These transmitters were powered by specially
designed electronic chips fabricated with cost-effective sil-
icon technologies. The system utilized a network of trans-
mitters to direct energy to specific target areas [49]. Such
experiments are becoming increasingly common as ad-
vancements in electronics technology enhance their effi-
ciency and feasibility.
Challenges, risks and issues of SBSP Concept
The SBSP concept faces several significant challenges that
must be addressed to realize its potential as a viable energy
solution. The development of SBSP is inherently complex
due to the immense scale and the intricate integration re-
quirements of the system. Once completed, the solar
power satellite is expected to be the largest and heaviest
structure in orbit, making the power-to-mass ratio (kW/kg)
a critical performance metric. Achieving a low system mass
while ensuring efficient power transmission from solar pho-
tovoltaic panels in space to the electrical grid is essential for
the viability of SBSP. This requires innovative materials, ad-
vanced engineering, and rigorous proof-of-concept demon-
strations to validate the technology's effectiveness in real-
world applications.
Although still in its nascent and costly stage [17, 18], SBSP
has the potential to overcome the limitations of terrestrial
PV power. Firstly, energy is harvested from space, where
the intensity of sunlight is greater, resulting in higher PV
power yield. Secondly, unlike ground-based PV panels,
space-based systems are not subject to the Earth`s day-
night cycle. By positioning the cells in a suitable orbit – such
as a geostationary or low Earth orbit [17, 18, 26] – the pan-
els can avoid shadowing and ensure continuous sunlight ex-
posure. Finally, the ability to transmit power continuously
from space allows for consistent energy delivery to areas
on Earth that are experiencing nighttime, thus addressing
energy storage challenges.
Economic
The primary challenge to the broader adoption of SBSP is
the high cost of launching PV cells, or any payload, into
space. Despite increasing demand for private space mis-
sions and significant efforts to commercialize space travel,
launch costs remain substantial, ranging from USD 1,400/kg
to over USD 50,000/kg [19, 20]. This significantly impacts
the cost per Watts of PV panels for SBSP, adding to the
manufacturing costs. Consequently, much of the research
and development in this area focuses on reducing the mass
and areal density (mass per unit area) of PV panels [19, 26].
The mass per unit area is directly related to the power gen-
erated per unit area of the cell, which leads to the im-
portant metric of specific power, or power generated per
unit mass.
The total cost of implementing SBSP is influenced by a mul-
titude of factors, including construction, operation, and
maintenance expenses, as well as the system's projected
lifespan. A critical metric in evaluating these costs is the
Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE), which provides a compre-
hensive measure of the lifetime costs of electricity genera-
tion. LCOE is calculated by dividing the total lifetime cost of
a power plant by the total energy output over its opera-
tional lifespan, making it an essential tool for comparing the
economic viability of different energy technologies.
For example, the estimated cost of the CASSIOPeiA project
is reported to be £16.3 billion, with an LCOE of £50/MWh,
while the SPS-ALPHA project is estimated to cost $11.4 bil-
lion, with an LCOE of $5.50 per Watt [18]. However, these
estimates are from studies conducted in 2021 and 2017, re-
spectively, and one of the significant cost components for
SBSP is transportation, which is rapidly decreasing as more
private companies enter the space industry. Consequently,
the actual costs and LCOE can only be accurately deter-
mined once a project is initiated.
Furthermore, LCOE can vary significantly depending on ge-
ographic and environmental factors. For example, the LCOE
for large-scale solar power in the UK is approximately
£33/MWh, whereas in the US, it ranges from $24 to
$96/MWh depending on the state. Similarly, the LCOE for
offshore wind in the UK is around £33/MWh, compared to
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$72 to $140/MWh in the US [18]. This variability under-
scores the importance of context-specific evaluations when
considering the economic feasibility of SBSP projects.
Technological
The development of SBSP does not require groundbreaking
scientific or technological innovations, but it does demand
significant advancements in several critical areas. These
challenges pose substantial obstacles to realizing the SBSP
vision.
The gravitational force from Earth decreases with distance,
but celestial bodies such as the Moon and Sun still exert
gravitational influences. Space debris and solar radiation
pose significant concerns [26, 51].
The size and mass of SBSP systems necessitate the con-
struction of key components in orbit, yet humanity has not
ventured into upper Earth orbit [20].
The assembly and maintenance of such large structures in
space will require advanced robotics capable of operating
autonomously in the harsh space environment. Given the
scale of SBSP systems, a lightweight, large-scale framework
that can be constructed by robots while maintaining struc-
tural rigidity is crucial [20, 52, 53].
Orbital location is a key consideration when launching such
structures. LEO, at altitudes of approximately 2,000 km or
less [54, 55], would require a cluster of 3-13 modules or in-
ternational collaboration to ensure continuous energy con-
version, though this could disrupt 24/7 supply [26]. The
stronger gravitational force in LEO necessitates additional
fuel for station maintenance. MEO, with satellite periods
ranging from 6 to 12 hours, provides a more extended pres-
ence over specific Earth regions [56].
GEO, about 36,000 km from Earth, allows a satellite or SBSP
module to orbit at the same speed as Earth`s rotation [54].
Once positioned in GEO, the module remains stationary rel-
ative to Earth, though initial testing will occur at lower or-
bits. GEO, despite higher launch costs, offers a continuous
power supply with just one module for a specific location,
making it a preferable choice for SBSP despite its higher ex-
pense [26].
Current rocket and thruster technologies are not yet effi-
cient or powerful enough to transfer large structures from
lower to higher orbits easily. To address these challenges,
smaller and lighter panels must be developed to simplify
construction and reduce costs. Additionally, the satellite's
operational lifetime must be maximized to ensure that the
investment is economically viable.
For wireless power transmission, microwave-based sys-
tems are applicable in all orbits, while laser-based systems
are limited to lower orbits. Challenges associated with la-
ser-based technologies include safety, environmental, and
legal concerns. Thus, microwave-based transmission is the
primary focus [57, 58]. The efficiency of wireless power
transfer is crucial, as the project was conceived due to the
lower efficiency of conventional solar plants. Improving
wireless power transfer technologies is essential for mini-
mizing energy losses during transmission from space to
Earth.
PV and solar dynamic (SD) energy conversion methods are
explored, with PV technology being prioritized [59]. PV
technology, using semiconductor materials like silicon to
convert sunlight into electricity, is favored for its simplicity,
low maintenance, and adaptability. However, PV systems
face issues like limited efficiency, substantial weight, and
sensitivity to temperature fluctuations. SD systems, which
use mirrors to concentrate light onto a working fluid and
generate electricity through a heat engine, could reduce
overall system mass but introduce their challenges [60].
The complexity and maintenance requirements of SD sys-
tems, along with the need for precise alignment, make
them less favorable. Microwave transmission, being safe
for human exposure at the proposed frequency [61, 62], is
preferred. The beam targets the ground where it is cap-
tured by a rectenna, converting microwaves into electricity
that is then adapted for grid delivery.
Lastly, cybersecurity poses a significant challenge. Software
bugs and vulnerabilities could compromise the precision
and performance of SBSP systems. Therefore, robust and
secure software, with built-in redundancy, is essential to
prevent satellites from transmitting at unsafe power levels
or being compromised by cyberattacks.
In summary, while SBSP is scientifically feasible, overcom-
ing these technological and logistical challenges is critical
for its successful development and deployment.
Political
The project will be influenced by both local and global po-
litical factors. On a local level, integrating a SBSP system
with existing infrastructure and aligning it with current en-
ergy policies presents significant challenges. Given that the
project will span decades before producing tangible results,
the development timeline must be meticulously planned to
ensure long-term viability.
One of the key local concerns is the need for large tracts of
land for Earth-receiving stations, particularly the rectennas.
The allocation and security of this land must be carefully
managed to avoid conflicts and ensure continuous opera-
tion. Space security is another critical factor, as the infra-
structure in orbit will require protection from both physical
and cyber threats.
On a global scale, international collaboration will be essen-
tial for the project's success. By sharing the costs, risks, and
benefits among participating nations, the project can not
only foster economic growth but also enhance global en-
ergy security. Collaborative efforts can also help overcome
political and regulatory hurdles, ensuring that the project
progresses smoothly despite its lengthy timeline.
Most nations currently have vague or underdeveloped reg-
ulations regarding SBSP. This lack of regulatory clarity can
deter inventors and businesses from investing in SBSP tech-
nology, as the risks associated with regulatory uncertainty
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Відновлювана енергетика. №1/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
are significant. One of the primary regulatory challenges is
wireless power transmission, which would fall under the ju-
risdiction of national government agencies and require in-
ternational coordination through bodies like the Interna-
tional Telecommunications Union (ITU).
Wireless communication is primarily regulated to manage
device and broadcast interference, and countries will need
to adapt their regulatory frameworks to accommodate
wireless power transmission. This adaptation will involve
recognizing that wireless power transmission should fit
within the existing regulatory structures. To prevent inter-
ference with existing technologies and communications, it
will be necessary to negotiate appropriate frequency allo-
cations and conduct thorough testing to identify and miti-
gate potential impacts on affected equipment and commu-
nications systems.
Publical
Large-scale projects require robust public support, particu-
larly when addressing the safety and security concerns
linked to wireless power transfer. Key issues often include
the potential effects of wireless transmissions on human
health and the safety of aircraft, wildlife, and infrastruc-
ture. However, SBSP systems are meticulously designed to
mitigate these risks, ensuring they do not endanger living
beings or physical structures. In essence, the technology
employed in SBSP systems, which utilizes low-power micro-
wave transmission, is comparable in wavelength to that
used in common household devices but operates at a sig-
nificantly lower signal strength. As such, the safety con-
cerns associated with SBSP are minimal and analogous to
those related to everyday technologies.
SBSP System Concept Architectures
Various organizations are actively developing conceptual
satellite designs. Below, we discuss some of the most re-
cent advancements in this area.
Sandwich module
The «sandwich module», originally investigated during
NASA/DOE research in the late 1970s, serves as the primary
component of various modular SBSP designs [27, 63, 64,
67]. This module carries out essential functions that can be
categorized into three distinct layers: first, accumulating
solar energy and converting it into direct current electricity;
second, generating an RF signal with the appropriate mag-
nitude and frequency for transmission; and third, forming a
spaceborne transmission array aperture capable of achiev-
ing sufficient beam coupling to deliver useful energy to the
ground. A simple, basic illustration of a sandwich module is
depicted in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5. NASA`s Sandwich Model Concept [18]
Solar Power Satellite via Arbitrarily Large-Phased Array
Solar Power Satellite via Arbitrarily Large Phased Array
(SPS-ALPHA) is a concentrator design that leverages a grav-
ity gradient-stabilized approach to separate the mirror
mass from the sandwich panel by several kilometers. The
sandwich panel in SPS-ALPHA is designed like a thin-film re-
flector and is permanently oriented toward Earth for elec-
tricity transmission. To direct sunlight onto the photovolta-
ics within the sandwich panel, the design employs
heliostats—motorized, individually adjustable mirrors that
respond to the Sun’s shifting position relative to the Earth.
By adjusting the satellite operator's position, the amount of
light reaching the panels can be controlled, which is crucial
for managing thermal load. The design also incorporates 10
types of standard modules, facilitating deployment, assem-
bly, and maintenance. By eliminating single points of fail-
ure, the design allows for gradual degradation. The system
is capable of delivering 2 GW of microwave power through
an antenna with a diameter of 1.7 km, paired with a 6 km
wide rectenna on Earth. The total mass of the system is es-
timated at 8,000 tons. The satellite is intended to orbit in
GEO to ensure consistent power delivery. The design is ex-
pected to have a lifespan of 100 years, with the flexibility
for component replacements as needed. Fig. 6 illustrates
the SPS-ALPHA design concept [17, 18, 20, 64-66].
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Відновлювана енергетика. №1/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
Fig. 6. NASA physicist John C. Mankins` SPS-ALPHA Mark-III
Concept [67]
Multi-rotary solar power satellite
The Multi-Rotary Solar Power Satellite (MR-SPS) is de-
signed to optimize solar energy collection and transmission
without relying on a traditional solar concentrator system.
Instead, the MR-SPS employs a series of large solar panels
supported by rotary joints, allowing these panels to rotate
around a single axis independently of the satellite’s main
framework. This innovative design enables continuous ex-
posure to the Sun, maximizing energy collection through-
out the satellite’s orbit and facilitating precise alignment of
the transmission array for efficient beam steering and
power transfer to Earth.
With a capacity of 1 GW, the MR-SPS features a structure
spanning 11.8 kilometers in width and weighing approxi-
mately 10,000 tonnes. It operates in GEO and includes a 1
km diameter antenna and a 5 km wide rectenna on Earth.
The design incorporates advanced thermal control mecha-
nisms to manage the heat generated by the concentrated
solar energy and distributes the solar load across multiple
rotating panels, addressing issues related to energy density
and thermal management.
The modular construction of the MR-SPS supports scalabil-
ity and adaptability, allowing adjustments to meet varying
energy demands and operational conditions. Although the
design eliminates the need for a complex solar concentra-
tor setup, it introduces significant technological challenges,
particularly concerning the robustness of the rotating joints
and the extensive power distribution system. Considerable
effort has been directed toward overcoming these chal-
lenges.
The MR-SPS is projected to have an operational lifespan of
thirty years, making it a promising candidate for future
space-based solar power applications [17, 18, 20, 65]. Fig.
7 illustrates the MR-SPS design concept.
Constant aperture solid-state integrated orbital phased
array
The Constant Aperture Solid-State Integrated Orbital Phased
Array (CASSIOPeiA) is a cutting-edge satellite design tailored
for space-based solar power systems. This advanced concept
features a continuous, solid-state phased array with a con-
stant aperture, optimizing the efficiency of energy transmis-
sion from space to Earth. The CASSIOPeiA satellite integrates
HCPV panels mounted on a helical structure oriented north-
south. This orientation, coupled with circular thin-film reflec-
tors, enables the panels to capture solar rays reflected by
mirrors positioned on either side of the structure, ensuring a
steady supply of electricity.
The satellite's design includes a collection of microwave-
emitting antennas configured as an orientable phased ar-
ray, which allows for 360° steering of the microwave beam.
These antennas work in synchrony to direct the beam as
the satellite rotates relative to Earth. This solid-state sys-
tem is devoid of moving components, with orbit stability
achieved through the adjustment of solar pressure on the
mirrors using electrochromic materials.
The modular construction of CASSIOPeiA, consisting of five
common module types, supports robotic assembly and de-
ployment. This design addresses heat management and
power distribution challenges by utilizing a modular dis-
persed approach, thereby eliminating single points of fail-
ure and allowing for gradual degradation over time. Each
module integrates both PV cells and RF dipoles, contrib-
uting to a high specific power rating and optimizing the use
of modules while reducing the total amount of PV required.
The satellite is designed to be maintenance-free, with pro-
visions for graceful aging throughout its lifespan.
For a 2 GW system, the estimated mass is approximately
2,000 tonnes, featuring a 1,6 km wide antenna and a 5 km
rectenna. The innovative use of HCPV panels, along with
the modular and dispersed design, enhances the satellite's
efficiency and reliability. Fig. 8 illustrates the CASSIOPeA
design concept [18, 64, 67, 68].
Fig. 7. China Academy of Space Technology`s MR-SPS Con-
cept [67]
The CASSIOPeiA and MR-SPS space-based solar power con-
cepts are both immense in size, especially when compared
to well-known structures like the International Space Sta-
tion (ISS), the Eiffel Tower, and the Burj Khalifa.
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Відновлювана енергетика. №1/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
Fig. 8. Space Solar Group Holdings Chief Architect Ian
Cash`s CASSIOPeiA Concept [67]
The CASSIOPeiA design features an antenna with a diame-
ter of 1.6 kilometers, which is about 14.7 times the length
of the ISS, nearly five times the height of the Eiffel Tower,
and almost twice the height of the Burj Khalifa. Its rectenna,
spanning 5 kilometers, is 45.8 times the length of the ISS,
15.15 times the height of the Eiffel Tower, and six times the
height of the Burj Khalifa.
In contrast, the MR-SPS concept has a structure width of
11.8 kilometers, which is 108 times the length of the ISS,
35.8 times the height of the Eiffel Tower, and 14.25 times
the height of the Burj Khalifa. The MR-SPS antenna, with a
diameter of 1 kilometer, is 9.2 times the length of the ISS,
three times the height of the Eiffel Tower, and slightly taller
than the Burj Khalifa. Its rectenna, like that of CASSIOPeiA,
is 5 kilometers wide, further emphasizing the vast scale of
these systems.
Both the CASSIOPeiA and MR-SPS concepts dwarf these
iconic structures, illustrating the extraordinary size and
complexity required for space-based solar power systems.
The MR-SPS, with its massive 11.8-kilometer width, stands
out as particularly immense, while CASSIOPeiA also demon-
strates significant scale, especially when compared to fa-
miliar landmarks like the ISS, the Eiffel Tower, and the Burj
Khalifa (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. A comparison of the CASSIOPeiA and the MR-SPS Concepts` sizes, relative to the highest points on Earth [67]
Conclusions
SBSP presents a transformative opportunity to achieve net-
zero emissions by 2050, with its potential to provide a con-
tinuous, weather-independent power supply. This paper
underscores the significant advancements in SBSP technol-
ogy, such as reusable rockets, more efficient PV cells, and
the reduction in manufacturing costs. These developments
have moved SBSP from a concept once deemed too costly
and complex to a promising solution for global energy de-
mands. Despite these advances, considerable challenges
remain, particularly in wireless power transmission and the
deployment of large-scale systems. Further research and
global collaboration are essential to overcoming these ob-
stacles and realizing SBSP's full potential as a clean, sustain-
able energy source. The paper concludes that with strategic
planning and sustained efforts, SBSP could play a pivotal
role in addressing the future energy crisis.
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|
| id | veorgua-article-508 |
| institution | Vidnovluvana energetika |
| keywords_txt_mv | keywords |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-07-19T01:15:06Z |
| publishDate | 2025 |
| publisher | Institute of Renewable Energy National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| record_format | ojs |
| resource_txt_mv | veorgua/7e/448dad7be4fbaedcb548ca6423c5747e.pdf |
| spelling | veorgua-article-5082026-07-18T06:32:21Z SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER: SCIENCE FICTION OR A NEAR-FUTURE REALITY СОНЯЧНА ЕНЕРГІЯ З КОСМОСУ: НАУКОВА ФАНТАСТИКА ЧИ РЕАЛЬНІСТЬ НАЙБЛИЖЧОГО МАЙБУТНЬОГО Matushkin , D. Bosak, A. space-based solar power, solar power satellites, sustainable energy, solar power plant, photo-voltaic plant, solar energy. космічна сонячна енергія, супутники сонячної енергії, стійка енергетика, сонячна елект-ростанція, фотоелектрична станція, сонячна енергія. The global energy demand is experiencing a rapid in-crease, with projections suggesting a potential doubling or 50% growth in the coming years. In response, the exploration of alter-native power generation methods has become imperative. Pho-tovoltaic power plants, while harnessing clean energy from the sun, face limitations due to their reliance on weather conditions and extensive land requirements. Space-based solar power offers a compelling alternative, providing the capa-bility to deliver continuous, carbon-free electricity with a power density exceeding that of terrestrial alternatives by more than tenfold while necessitating significantly less land.Space-based solar power systems operate by collecting and converting solar energy in space, which is then transmitted wirelessly to Earth using microwaves or lasers to generate electricity. However, achieving this po-tential requires overcoming substantial technological challenges, particularly in the domain of wireless power transmission over long distances to effectively reach ground-based receivers.As the drive towards net-zero emissions intensifies, Space-based solar power is increasingly recognized as a viable option. This paper offers an overview of Space-based solar power as an integrated system. It introduces cutting-edge advancements, including system properties and modern Space-based solar power concept archi-tectures, and examines their applications and spillover effects across various sectors. Additionally, the paper addresses the challenges and risks associated with Space-based solar power, emphasizing key barriers to suc-cessful implementation. Despite the availability of much of the requisite technology, its efficiency remains in-sufficient for practical deployment. Nevertheless, with the participation of private enterprises in the space race and ongoing advancements in system efficiency, the overall costs of Space-based solar power are decreasing. With continued progress and sustained investment, Space-based solar power, in conjunction with other renew-able technologies, holds the potential to significantly contribute to cross-sector decarbonization. Ref. 68. Fig. 9. Світовий попит на енергію стрімко зростає, і про-гнози вказують на його потенційне подвоєння або зростання на 50 % найближчими роками. З огляду на це зростає пот-реба в дослідженні альтернативних методів виробництва енергії. Фотоелектричні станції, хоча й використовують чи-сту енергію Сонця, мають обмеження через залежність від погодних умов та потребу у великих площах землі. Космічна сонячна енергія видається привабливою альтернативою, забезпечуючи можливість безперервного постачання безвуглецевої електроенергії з густиною потужності, що перевищує назе-мні аналоги більш ніж у десять разів, при цьому потребуючи значно менше земельної площі.Системи космічної сонячної енергії працюють за принципом збирання та перетворення сонячної енергії в космосі, яка потім передається бездротовим шляхом на Землю за допомогою мікрохвиль або лазерів для генерації електроенергії. Проте для реалізації цього потенціалу необхідно подолати значні техно-логічні виклики, зокрема у сфері бездротової передачі енергії на великі відстані для ефективного досяг-нення наземних приймачів.Зважаючи на посилення прагнення до досягнення нульових викидів СО2, космічна сонячна енергія дедалі більше визнається як реалістичний варіант. У цій статті надано загальний огляд космічної сонячної енергії як інтегрованої системи. Розглядаються новітні досягнення, включно з властивостями систем та сучасними архітектурними концепціями космічної сонячної енергії, а також аналізується їх засто-сування і вплив на різні сектори. Крім того, у статті висвітлено виклики та ризики, пов’язані з косміч-ною сонячною енергією, з акцентом на ключові бар’єри, що перешкоджають її успішному впрова-дженню. Попри наявність багатьох необхідних технологій, їхня ефективність поки що недостатня для практичного використання. Проте із залученням приватних підприємств до космічних перегонів та по-стійним удосконаленням системної ефективності, загальні витрати на космічну сонячну енергію зме-ншуються. За умови продовження прогресу та постійних інвестицій, космічна сонячна енергія, у поєд-нанні з іншими відновлюваними джерелами енергії, має потенціал значно сприяти декарбонізації різних секторів економіки країн. Бібл. 68. Рис. 9. Institute of Renewable Energy National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine 2025-03-31 Article Article application/pdf https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/508 10.36296/1819-8058.2025.1(80).70-81 Vidnovluvana energetika ; No. 1(80) (2025): Scientific and applied Journal renewable energy ; 70-81 Возобновляемая энергетика; ##issue.no## 1(80) (2025): Scientific and applied Journal renewable energy ; 70-81 Відновлювана енергетика; № 1(80) (2025): Науково-прикладний журнал Відновлювана енергетика; 70-81 2664-8172 1819-8058 10.36296/1819-8058.2025.1(80) en https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/508/417 Copyright (c) 2025 D. Matushkin , A. Bosak https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 |
| spellingShingle | space-based solar power solar power satellites sustainable energy solar power plant photo-voltaic plant solar energy. Matushkin , D. Bosak, A. SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER: SCIENCE FICTION OR A NEAR-FUTURE REALITY |
| title | SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER: SCIENCE FICTION OR A NEAR-FUTURE REALITY |
| title_alt | СОНЯЧНА ЕНЕРГІЯ З КОСМОСУ: НАУКОВА ФАНТАСТИКА ЧИ РЕАЛЬНІСТЬ НАЙБЛИЖЧОГО МАЙБУТНЬОГО |
| title_full | SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER: SCIENCE FICTION OR A NEAR-FUTURE REALITY |
| title_fullStr | SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER: SCIENCE FICTION OR A NEAR-FUTURE REALITY |
| title_full_unstemmed | SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER: SCIENCE FICTION OR A NEAR-FUTURE REALITY |
| title_short | SPACE-BASED SOLAR POWER: SCIENCE FICTION OR A NEAR-FUTURE REALITY |
| title_sort | space-based solar power: science fiction or a near-future reality |
| topic | space-based solar power solar power satellites sustainable energy solar power plant photo-voltaic plant solar energy. |
| topic_facet | space-based solar power solar power satellites sustainable energy solar power plant photo-voltaic plant solar energy. космічна сонячна енергія супутники сонячної енергії стійка енергетика сонячна елект-ростанція фотоелектрична станція сонячна енергія. |
| url | https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/508 |
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