PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR PVT COLLECTOR USING ZN-ZNO/WATER HYBRID NANOFLUID
Providing an analytical examination of the solar flat plate collector (SFPC) is the goal of this work. Using Zn/water, ZnO/water nanofluids, and Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid. This study compares various mass flow rates and concentrations of nanoparticles. Heat transfer, energy and exergy efficiency...
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| author | Sakthivel , K. Dhanushkodi , S. Sudhakar, K. Balu, P. Ivanchuk , V. |
| author_facet | Sakthivel , K. Dhanushkodi , S. Sudhakar, K. Balu, P. Ivanchuk , V. |
| author_institution_txt_mv | [
{
"author": "K. Sakthivel ",
"institution": "PRIST University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India"
},
{
"author": "S. Dhanushkodi ",
"institution": "PRIST University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India"
},
{
"author": " K. Sudhakar",
"institution": "Malaysia University, Pahang, Malaysia"
},
{
"author": " P. Balu",
"institution": "Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India"
},
{
"author": "V. Ivanchuk ",
"institution": "Institute of Renewable Energy, NAS of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine"
}
] |
| author_sort | Sakthivel , K. |
| baseUrl_str | https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/oai |
| collection | OJS |
| datestamp_date | 2026-07-18T06:32:23Z |
| description | Providing an analytical examination of the solar flat plate collector (SFPC) is the goal of this work. Using Zn/water, ZnO/water nanofluids, and Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid. This study compares various mass flow rates and concentrations of nanoparticles. Heat transfer, energy and exergy efficiency, and pressure drop characteristics of SFPC operation on these nanofluids are investigated. The addition of Zn/water nanofluid 16.71%, ZnO/water nanofluid 16.36%, and Zn-ZnO/water hybrid naofluid 18.52% nanoparticles enhances the working fluid's thermal conductivity. Gain in heat is improved with use of Nanofluids Zn/water nanofluid 1.02%, ZnO/water nanofluid 0.90%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid 2.15%. Efficiency improvements observed in SFPC Zn/water nanofluid: 0.93%, ZnO/water nanofluid 1.05%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid: 2.23%. The increase in pumping power required for the nanofluids: Zn/water nanofluid 3.08%, ZnO/water nanofluid 2.38%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid: 2.918%. Improvements in energy efficiency as per exergy analysis: Zn/water nanofluid 2.32%, ZnO/water nanofluid 2.18%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid 2.60%. In solar flat plate collectors, hybrid nanofluid Zn-ZnO/water significantly improves efficiency. The hybrid nanofluid exhibits the highest thermal conductivity and the most substantial improvement in collector efficiency and usable heat gain among the tested fluids. Additionally, despite a slight increase in pumping power requirements, the overall energy and exergy performance enhancements make hybrid nanofluids suitable for SFPC applications. These findings suggest that integrating hybrid nanofluids in SFPCs can lead to more efficient solar energy systems, potentially contributing to better energy management and sustainability. Further research could explore optimizing nanoparticle concentration and flow rates to maximize these benefits while managing pumping power requirements. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.36296/1819-8058.2025.4(83).126-135 |
| first_indexed | 2026-02-08T07:59:29Z |
| format | Article |
| fulltext |
126
Відновлювана енергетика. № 4/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
6.24: 004.942 https://doi.org/10.36296/1819-8058.2025.4(83).126-135
PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR PVT COLLECTOR
USING ZN-ZNO/WATER HYBRID NANOFLUID
Received Aug. 05, 2025; accepted Dec. 09, 2025
Available online Dec. 31, 2025
Sakthivel K.1, Dhanushkodi S.2, Sudhakar K.3,
Balu P.4, Ivanchuk V.5
Author for correspondence: Sakthivel K.
e-mail: ksmega6@gmail.com
Abstract. Providing an analytical examination of the solar
flat plate collector (SFPC) is the goal of this work. Using
Zn/water, ZnO/water nanofluids, and Zn-ZnO/water hybrid
nanofluid. This study compares various mass flow rates and
concentrations of nanoparticles. Heat transfer, energy and
exergy efficiency, and pressure drop characteristics of SFPC
operation on these nanofluids are investigated. The addition
of Zn/water nanofluid 16.71%, ZnO/water nanofluid 16.36%,
and Zn-ZnO/water hybrid naofluid 18.52% nanoparticles en-
hances the working fluid's thermal conductivity. Gain in heat
is improved with use of Nanofluids Zn/water nanofluid
1.02%, ZnO/water nanofluid 0.90%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid
nanofluid 2.15%. Efficiency improvements observed in SFPC
Zn/water nanofluid: 0.93%, ZnO/water nanofluid 1.05%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid: 2.23%. The increase in
pumping power required for the nanofluids: Zn/water nanofluid 3.08%, ZnO/water nanofluid 2.38%, Zn-ZnO/wa-
ter hybrid nanofluid: 2.918%. Improvements in energy efficiency as per exergy analysis: Zn/water nanofluid 2.32%,
ZnO/water nanofluid 2.18%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid 2.60%. In solar flat plate collectors, hybrid nanofluid
Zn-ZnO/water significantly improves efficiency. The hybrid nanofluid exhibits the highest thermal conductivity and
the most substantial improvement in collector efficiency and usable heat gain among the tested fluids. Addition-
ally, despite a slight increase in pumping power requirements, the overall energy and exergy performance en-
hancements make hybrid nanofluids suitable for SFPC applications. These findings suggest that integrating hybrid
nanofluids in SFPCs can lead to more efficient solar energy systems, potentially contributing to better energy man-
agement and sustainability. Further research could explore optimizing nanoparticle concentration and flow rates
to maximize these benefits while managing pumping power requirements.
Key words: Solar flat plate collector, Thermo physical properties, Hybrid nanofluid, Energy efficiency, Exergy
efficiency.
ПІДВИЩЕННЯ ЕФЕКТИВНОСТІ ПЛОСКОГО СОНЯЧНОГО PVT-КОЛЕКТОРА ЗА РАХУНОК
ВИКОРИСТАННЯ ГІБРИДНОГО НАНОРІДИННОГО ТЕПЛОНОСІЯ Zn–ZnO/ВОДА
Отримано 05 серп. 2025 р.; рекомендовано до публікації 09 груд. 2025 р.
Доступно онлайн 31 груд. 2024 р.
Сактивел K.1, Дханушкоді С.2, Судхакар K.3,
Балу П.4, Іванчук В.5
Автор для кореспонденції: Сактивел K.,
e-mail: ksmega6@gmail.com
Анотація. Метою цієї роботи є аналіз робочих характери-
стик плоского сонячного колектора. Дослідження прово-
диться з використанням нанорідин Zn/вода, ZnO/вода та гі-
бридної нанорідини Zn–ZnO/вода. У роботі порівняно різні
витрати теплоносія та концентрації наночастинок. До-
1 аспірант кафедри машинобудування
https://orcid.org/0009-0006-5612-0070
2 професор кафедри машинобудування
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3473-872X
3 доцент, факультет машинобудування
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4867-2362
4 доцент
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3480-1116
5 канд. тех. наук, науковий співроб.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0585-9610
1, 2 Університет PRIST, Танджавур, Тамілнад,
Індія
3 Університет Малайзії, Паханг, Малайзія
4 Інститут вищої освіти та досліджень Бхарат,
Ченнаї, Тамілнад, Індія
5 Інститут відновлюваної енергетики НАН Ук-
1 Research Scholar,
Department of Mechanical Engineering
https://orcid.org/0009-0006-5612-0070
2 Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3473-872X
3 Associate Professor,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4867-2362
4 Associate Professor
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3480-1116
5 PhD (Tech.), Research Assistant
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0585-9610
1, 2 PRIST University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
3 Malaysia University, Pahang, Malaysia
4 Bharath Institute of Higher Education and
Research, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
5 Institute of Renewable Energy, NAS of Ukraine,
Kyiv, Ukraine
127
Відновлювана енергетика. № 4/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
сліджено теплопередачу, енергетичну та ексергетичну
ефективність, а також характер зміни гідравлічного
опору при роботі плоского сонячного колектора з різними
нанорідинами. Додавання нанорідини Zn/вода покращує
теплопровідність робочої рідини на 16,71%, нанорідини
ZnO/вода — на 16,36%, гібридної нанорідини Zn–ZnO/вода
— на 18,52%. Приріст корисного тепла покращується за
застосування нанорідини Zn/вода на 1,02%, ZnO/вода — на
0,90%, Zn–ZnO/вода — на 2,15%. Підвищення ефективності роботи плоского сонячного колектора ста-
новило у разі використання нанорідини Zn/вода 0,93%, ZnO/вода — 1,05%, Zn–ZnO/вода — 2,23%. Зрос-
тання потужності, необхідної на прокачування, складало у випадку застосування нанорідини Zn/вода
3,08%, ZnO/вода — 2,38%, Zn–ZnO/вода — 2,918%. Підвищення енергоефективності за результатами
ексергетичного аналізу становило у випадку застосування нанорідини Zn/вода 2,32%, ZnO/вода —
2,18%, Zn–ZnO/вода — 2,60%. Гібридна нанорідина Zn–ZnO/вода демонструє значне підвищення ефекти-
вності плоского сонячного колектора, забезпечуючи найвищу теплопровідність та найбільший приріст
енергоефективності серед досліджуваних робочих рідин у плоских сонячних колекторах.
Попри незначне збільшення енергоспоживання на прокачування, загальні показники енергетичної та ек-
сергетичної ефективності свідчать про доцільність застосування гібридних нанорідин у колекторах
такого типу. Отримані результати демонструють, що використання гібридних нанорідин підвищує
ефективність сонячних систем генерації, покращує можливості енергоменеджменту та сприяє досяг-
ненню сталості. Подальші дослідження можуть бути спрямовані на оптимізацію концентрації нано-
частинок та витрат теплоносія в цілях максимізації ефекту та мінімізації витрат на перекачування.
Ключові слова: інтеграція відновлюваної енергії, асинхронний двигун з подвійною кліткою (DCIM), енер-
гоефективність, теплові характеристики, моментні характеристики, сталість транспорту, аналіз
методом скінченних елементів (FEA), MATLAB-моделювання.
1. INTRODUCTION
The spread of industrial development has led to an in-
crease in the use of traditional fossil fuels. It is anticipated
that by 2035 to 2040, the global share of renewable en-
ergy will rise by 14% to 22% [1]. Furthermore, within the
past few decades, the use of solar energy has increased
across a wide range of applications. Heat and electricity
can be directly produced from solar energy. [2]. In order
to accomplish this goal, thermal systems like photovoltaic
thermal collectors, both evacuated tube collectors (ETC)
and flat-plate solar collectors (FPSC) can be used. [3]. So-
lar energy is predominantly harnessed using solar thermal
and photovoltaic technologies. With 8% of the installed
capacity, solar photovoltaic technologies have primarily
dominated the renewable energy market in India [4]. In a
PV panel, a PV/T system produces electrical energy, while
the cooling process uses a variety of materials and fluids,
including air, water, the substance that changes phases
and thermal energy absorption via nanofluids [5]. Nano-
particles enhance the outlet temperature of flat plate so-
lar collectors [6]. Flat-plate collectors perform better than
ETC in terms of exergy and energy efficiency when the
gross area is equal [7]. PV/T systems with significant en-
ergy and performance gains can be constructed using the
study's findings. [8]. Collector efficiency increases when
TiO2-water nanofluids are used instead of pure water [9].
Applying nanofluid is advised to boost the solar ther-
mal/thermoelectric system's power output, carbon offset,
and carbon credits [10]. The use of nanoparticles enhan-
ces their performance, and the micro-fin tube with
twisted tape improves heat transfer, thereby enhancing
thermal performance [11]. The nanofluid-cooled sinusoi-
dal serpentine tube collector (PV/T-S) unit exhibits the op-
timum energetic and exergetic performance [12]. The
findings show that, in comparison to pure water, the
nanofluid enhances temperature performance and ther-
mal efficiency [13]. When SiC nanofluid, TiO2 nanofluid,
SiO2 nanofluid, and pure water were utilized as cooling
fluids in the PV/T collector, the Pmax of the PV/T rose by
62.5%, 57%, 55%, and 50%, respectively. Additionally, it
was found that the SiC/water nanofluid worked better
electrically and thermally than other working fluids [14].
With the best overall energy coefficient (COE) of 0.93, the
PV/T collector with SiC nanofluid has the maximum com-
bined PV/T efficiency of 81.73% and PV/T electrical effi-
ciency of 13.52% [15]. The sheet-and-sinusoidal tube col-
lector (PV/TW) unit has total energy and energy
efficiencies are 9.11 – 15.51% and 1.12 – 2.59% greater,
respectively, compared to the PV/TP unit's sheet-and-
plain tube collector [16]. The current study examined the
stability of a distilled water/magnesium oxide (MgO)
nanofluid and its effect on the FPSC thermal performance.
Under the same parametric conditions, the absorbed en-
ergy factor rose by 16.74% while the heat loss parameter
decreased by 52.2%. The outcomes support the applica-
tion of MgO nanofluid in FPSC [17]. The ideal design for
efficiently cooling photovoltaic panels is a PV module with
bi-fluid modes, which can contribute to the development
of more sustainable and energy-efficient solar energy
1, 2 Університет PRIST, Танджавур, Тамілнад,
Індія
3 Університет Малайзії, Паханг, Малайзія
4 Інститут вищої освіти та досліджень Бхарат,
Ченнаї, Тамілнад, Індія
5 Інститут відновлюваної енергетики НАН
України, Київ, Україна
128
Відновлювана енергетика. № 4/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
conversion technologies [18]. The electrical energy effi-
ciency increased when a hybrid nanofluid was used, and it
was also used to cool the PV panels to achieve optimal
performance [19]. The nanotubes give out the maximum
thermo-hydraulic performance parameter [20]. Modern
machine learning algorithms and hybrid nanofluids are
being used to enhance FPSC's thermal performance. [21].
The performance of a Zn/ZnO hybrid nanofluid is tested.
The current effort aims to investigate the performance of
the SFPC using Zn-ZnO/water nanofluids. The trials were
conducted at various flow rates and a fixed concentration
inside an enclosed space. The outcomes are contrasted
with SFPC based on water.
2. EXPERIMENT
2.1. Apparatus
The setup consists of a 30W mono-crystalline silicon pho-
tovoltaic module. The PV module specs are listed in
Table 1, and Fig. 1 displays the schematic diagram. Ther-
mal characteristics of the PVT panel material are given in
Table 2. Copper tubes are arranged in a harp pattern at
the base of the solar panel. The nanofluid is pumped
through the cooling circuit. The nanofluid is heated in the
PVT system and then cooled using a heat exchanger. The
temperature of the nanofluid is measured using K-type
thermocouples, and the surface temperatures of the solar
modules are measured using temperature guns. Table 3
lists the electrical circuit specifications employed in the
setup, whereas Table 4 lists the characteristics of the var-
ious nanomaterials.
A charge controller is connected with a switch between
solar panels, batteries and consumer loads, enabling PVT
systems to generate a sustained power source. The volt-
ages and currents in open and short circuits are meas-
ured using digital multimeters, while hand-held solar
power meters are used to detect solar radiation.
Table 1. Specifications of Photovoltaic Module
S.No. Parameter Specification
1. Maximum Power (Pmax) 30 W
2. Voltage in Open-circuit 22.0 V
3. Current in Short-circuit 1.75 A
4. Voltage at Pmax (Vmp) 18.5 V
5. Pmax Current (Imp) 1.62 A
6. Efficiency 15%
7. Type of PV module Mono-crystalline silicon
Table 2. Thermal characteristics of PVT panel
S.No. Description Density (kilogram/cu.m) Sp. Heat (J/kg·K)
Thermal Conductivity
(W/m·K)
1 Glass 2,500 837 1.05
2 Silicon 2,330 700 148
3 Copper 8,960 385 401
Table 3. Specifications of Electrical Components
S.No. Component Specification
1 Charge Controller 10A PWM, 12V/24V
2 Storage Battery 100Ah Lead-acid, 12V,
3 Consumer DC Load 12V LED lights, 12V DC fan, USB charger
Table 4. Thermophysical characteristics of various base fluids and nanomaterials
S.No. Cooling Fluid Density (kg/ m3) Sp.heat Capacity (J/kg-K) Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K)
1 Water 997.1 4182 0.617
2 Zn 7130 523 50
3 ZnO 5600 501 16.1
129
Відновлювана енергетика. № 4/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
3. SCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup
3.1. Composition of hybrid nanofluid
Fig. 2 displays the Zn, ZnO, and Zn-ZnO nanoparticles' scanning
electron microscopy images, which Kanasparsa Chemicals Pvt.
Ltd. supplies to produce Zn-ZnO hybrid nanofluid suspended
in deionized water. The thermophysical characteristics of sev-
eral base fluids and nanomaterials are listed in Table 4.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 2. SEM images of (a) Zn (b) ZnO and (c) Zn-ZnO hybrid
nanoparticles
Both one-step and two-step procedures are commonly
used to prepare nanofluids. SEM is referenced in Fig. 2. Na-
noparticle images (a) of zinc nanoparticles (b) of zinc oxide
nanoparticles (c) of zinc-zinc oxide hybrid nanoparticles. Zn,
ZnO, and Zn-ZnO nanoparticles are suspended in deionized
water to create a hybrid nanofluid.
3.2. Experimental procedure
1. Setup initialization:
• Ensure that all components are properly connected
as per the schematic diagram in Fig. 1.
• Fill the cooling circuit with the selected nanofluid.
• Set the constant volume flow rate for the nanofluid
pump.
2. Measurement and data collection:
• Using K-type thermocouples, note the nanofluid's
initial temperature at the heat exchanger's input.
• The regular use of temperature guns to measure the
solar panel's surface temperatures.
• Monitor and record the temperature of the
nanofluid at various points in the cooling circuit.
3. Cooling and efficiency evaluation:
• Allow the system to run under stable solar radiation
conditions.
• Measure the nanofluid's exit temperature after it
has passed through the cooling system.
• Determine the heat transfer rate, cooling efficiency,
and overall system efficiency using the recorded data.
4. Data analysis:
• Analyze the system's performance using various
nanofluids.
130
Відновлювана енергетика. № 4/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
• Analyze how the thermal characteristics of the
nanofluid affect the PV/T system's overall efficiency.
• Evaluate the data to determine optimal nanofluid
and flow rate for maximum efficiency and minimal
temperature rise in the PV module.
The purpose of the experimental setup is to examine how
various nanofluids affect the PV/T system's electrical and
thermal performance, with a focus on optimizing the cool-
ing process to enhance overall efficiency.
4. DATA REDUCTION AND MEASUREMENT
In this experiment, a 30W power hybrid PV/T module is
used. PV panels are equipped with copper tubes at the back
that are utilized to deliver hybrid nano-fluid at varying flow
rates and fixed concentrations. An infrared thermometer is
used to record the panel's temperature. Temperature
measurements are obtained at the panel's entry and exit as
well as the heat exchanger's entry and exit. Temperatures
are recorded at several locations throughout the experi-
mental setup using six thermocouples. The hot fluid is sent
back to the panel's entry via a bucket after cooling in a
finned heat exchanger. Solar radiation serves as the input
energy,and the thermal and electrical energy are the out-
puts when the thermal collector and PV module are viewed
as a single control volume.
Equation (1) gives Reynolds and Prandtl numbers
𝑅𝑒 =
4 𝑚𝑟
𝜋𝐷𝑖𝜇
𝑟 =
𝜇𝐶𝑝
𝑘
(1)
where,
mr - rate of mass flow in a single riser
Equation (2) gives Nusselt number of SFPC.
𝑁𝑢 =
(𝑓 8⁄ )(𝑅𝑒−1000)𝑃𝑟
1+1.27(
𝑓
8⁄ )
0.5
(𝑃𝑟
0.66−1)
(2)
Where,
f, - Darcy friction factor.
Equation (3) provides the working fluid's rate of useful heat
gain based on the principles of thermodynamics.
𝑄𝑢= 𝑚˙𝐶𝑝 (𝑇ƒ,o𝑢𝑡–𝑇ƒ,i𝑛) (3)
Equation (4) provides the working fluid's heat gain.
𝑄𝑢=𝐴𝑐[𝐼𝑡(𝑟𝛼)−𝑈𝑙(𝑇𝑝−𝑇𝑎)]
𝑄𝑢=[𝐼𝑡(𝑟𝛼)−𝑈𝑙 (𝑇ƒ,i𝑛−𝑇𝑎)] (4)
Where,
𝐹𝑅 – heat removes factor
Equation (5) computes the pumping power.
𝑃 =
𝑚
ρ𝑛𝑓
∆𝑝 (5)
Exergy efficiency is obtained by equation (6)
ƞ
Ex =
𝐸𝑥𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐸𝑥𝑠𝑢𝑛
=
𝐸𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑓−𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑛,𝑓
𝐼𝑡𝐴𝑐(1−
𝑇𝑎
𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑛
)
(6)
In the SFPC, entropy is calculate by equation (7)
(𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛)𝐻 =
𝐸𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡,1 + 𝐸𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡,2 + 𝐸𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡,3 + 𝐸𝑥𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑇𝑎
(𝑆𝑔𝑒𝑛)𝐹 =
𝐸𝑥𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑡 ∆𝑝
𝑇𝑎
(7)
5. FINDINGS AND CONVERSATION
Effective thermal conductivity is the ratio of a nanofluid's
thermal conductivity to that of the base fluid. As a function
of particle concentration, Fig. 3 displays the effective ther-
mal conductivity of the component mono and hybrid
nanofluids.
1 2 3 4 5
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
1.20
E
ff
e
c
ti
v
e
T
h
e
rm
a
l
C
o
n
d
u
c
ti
v
it
y
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn NF
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HNF
Fig. 3. Thermal Conductivity with respect
to volume fraction
When compared to water, thermal conductivity is increased
16.71% for Zn/water, 16.36% for ZnO/water, and 18.52% for
Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid. The effective thermal con-
ductivity of mono- and hybrid-nanofluids is influenced by
particle volume concentration; this effect is more pro-
nounced at higher volume fractions. The reason for the en-
richment is that the dynamic motion of the particles en-
hances collisions between suspended nanoparticles. This is
the reason for the enrichment. When copper nanoparticles
hybridize with copper oxide nanoparticles, Kim et al. claim
that a superior thermal network is created at the particle-
particle and particle-surrounded fluid layer interfaces [22].
The Nusselt number variation for mass flow rates of 0.1 kg/s
and 0.5 kg/s is depicted in Figs. 4 (a) and (b). These are the
Nusselt numbers: 78.28 and 12.54 at mass water flow rates
of 0.1 kg/s and 0.5 kg/s, respectively. However, the Nusselt
number of the nanofluid falls with increasing particle con-
centration, and the Reynolds number is inversely propor-
tional to the fluid's viscosity at constant mass flow rates.
Thermal diffusion rates increase by 18.51% while viscous
diffusion rates decrease by 4.4 % for Zn-ZnO/water hybrid
nanofluid with a mass flow rate of 0.1 kg/s. As a result, the
Nusselt number drops by 9.6%. At a mass flow rate of 0.5
kg/s, the Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid reduced the
Nusselt number by 13.99% in comparison to water. This
happens because, as the mass flow rate improves, the Rey-
131
Відновлювана енергетика. № 4/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
nolds number rises. Heat capacity falls, and the nanofluid's
thermal conductivity rises more with larger particle density.
Consequently, the Prandtl number lowers when thermal
diffusion takes dominance over viscous diffusion. The de-
crease in Nusselt number is caused by the combined de-
cline in Reynolds and Prandtl numbers.
The Nusselt number fluctuation as a function of Reynolds
number is displayed in Fig. 5 for a variety of nanofluids with
different particle concentrations ranging from 1 vol.% to 5
vol.%. In SFPC, the mass flow rate rises proportionately to the
nanofluid's Reynolds number. Regardless of the kind of
nanofluid, the Nusselt number increases as the Reynolds
number does. According to Allahyar et al., the Nusselt num-
ber increases as the Reynolds number does [23]. The change
in outlet temperature in relation to volume fractions at mass
flow rates of 0.01 kg/s and 0.1 kg/s is depicted in Figs. 6 (a)
and (b). The working fluid's specific heat significantly affects
the nanofluid's exit temperature in an SFPC. Zinc/water has
a lower heat capacity and higher density than other nanoflu-
ids, resulting in higher outlet temperatures.
1 2 3 4 5
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
N
u
s
s
e
lt
n
u
m
b
e
r
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn NF
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HNF
m = 0.1 kg/s
Fig. 4 (a). Nusselt number with respect to the particle
volume fraction
1 2 3 4 5
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
N
u
s
s
e
lt
n
u
m
b
e
r
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn NF
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HNF
m=0.5 kg/s
Fig. 4 (b). Nusselt number in relation to the fraction
of particle volume
9000 9200 9400 9600 9800 10000 10200
58
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
N
u
s
s
e
lt
N
u
m
b
e
r
Reynolds Number
Zn NF
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HYNF
Fig. 5. Reynolds number in relation to Nusselt number
1 2 3 4 5
318
320
322
324
326
328
O
u
tl
e
t
T
e
m
p
e
ra
tu
re
(
K
)
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn-ZnO HNF
ZnO NF
Zn NF
m = 0.01 kg/s
Fig. 6 (a). Temperature at the outlet in relation
to the particle volume faction
1 2 3 4 5
310.8
311.0
311.2
311.4
311.6
311.8
312.0
O
u
tl
e
t
T
e
m
p
e
ra
tu
re
(
K
)
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn-ZnO HNF
ZnO NF
Zn NF
m = 0.1 kg/s
Fig. 6 (b). Temperature at the outlet in relation
to the particle volume fraction
132
Відновлювана енергетика. № 4/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
The outlet temperature is not solely determined by specific
heat. Because the higher effective density nanofluid has a
lower velocity at a given flow rate, it may absorb more heat
energy from the hot riser tube of the SFPC. As a result, the
nanofluid's exit temperature rises. According to Genc et al.,
the nanoparticles have a stronger impact on the outlet tem-
perature of the flat plate solar collectors [24]. Figs. 7 (a) and
(b) display the heat gain at different volume percentages.
These graphs demonstrate that the hybrid nanofluid has a
higher heat gain than the mono nanofluids for all volume
fractions. At a mass flow rate of 0.1 kg/s, the highest useful
heat gain of the hybrid nanofluid is around 585.85 W/m2,
which is higher than the maximum usable heat gains of wa-
ter, Zn/water, and ZnO/water nanofluids, which are 569.23
W/m2, 574.23 W/m2, and 575.11 W/m2.
1 2 3 4 5
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
H
e
a
t
G
a
in
(
W
/m
2
)
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn-ZnO HNF
ZnO NF
Zn NF
m = 0.1 kg/s
Fig. 7 (a). Heat gain with respect to particle
volume fraction
1 2 3 4 5
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
H
e
a
t
G
a
in
(
W
/m
2
)
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn-ZnO HNF
ZnO NF
Zn NF
m = 0.5 kg/s
Fig. 7 (b). Heat gain in relation to the volume proportion
of particles
The hybrid nanofluid has a heat gain of 601.41 W/m2 at a
mass flow rate of 0.5 kg/s. The equivalent gains for Zn/wa-
ter, ZnO/water, and water nanofluids are 588.68 W/m2,
591.14 W/m2, and 593.23 W/m2, respectively. The maximal
usable heat gain of the hybrid nanofluid is precisely 2.15%
more than that of water. The hybrid nanofluid's increased
specific heat causes it to absorb more heat than the other
nanofluids. According to Alrowaili and associates, the heat
removal was 0.894. With a thermal-optical efficiency that is
61.7% higher than that of water and 14.9% higher than that
of mono CuO, the hybrid CuO 2.5g and Cu 1.5g nanofluid
[25]. Figs. 8 (a), (b) shows the SFPC's first law efficiency at
various volume fractions of particle concentration in the
Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid and its component mono
nanofluids at mass flow rates of 0.1 kg/s and 0.5 kg/s. The
hybrid nanofluid-based SFPC shows a 2.23% gain in instan-
taneous efficiency over water at a mass flow rate of 0.5
kg/s. The figure illustrates the superior performance of hy-
brid nanofluids over regular nanofluids in terms of collector
efficiency at both mass flow rates.
1 2 3 4 5
66.5
67.0
67.5
68.0
68.5
69.0
69.5
70.0
70.5
71.0
F
ir
s
t
L
a
w
E
ff
ic
ie
n
c
y
(
%
)
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn NF
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HYNF
m = 0.1 kg/s
Fig. 8 (a). Thermal efficiency with respect to particle vol-
ume fraction
1 2 3 4 5
68.0
68.5
69.0
69.5
70.0
70.5
71.0
71.5
72.0
F
ir
s
t
L
a
w
E
ff
ic
ie
n
c
y
(
%
)
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn NF
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HYNF
m = 0.5 kg/s
Fig. 8 (b). Thermal efficiency with respect to particle vol-
ume fraction
Higher energy efficiency is achieved by the collector fluid
with a higher useful heat gain and a lower heat loss for the
incident solar radiation. According to Zadkhast et al., the
133
Відновлювана енергетика. № 4/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
hybrid nanofluid's thermal conductivity significantly in-
creases as the temperature and solid volume fraction rise
[26]. For different nanofluids, the variation in SFPC's pump-
ing power and pressure drop as a function of volume per-
cent is shown. in Figs. 9 (a) and (b). When the volume frac-
tion rises, the pressure drop increases linearly. Every
nanofluid has a similar propensity to develop. As pressure
decreases, the pumping power varies significantly. A
greater pumping power is needed in proportion to the in-
creased pressure loss in the Zn/water nanofluid. In contrast
with water, the ZnO/water, Zn-ZnO/water, and Zn/water
nanofluids exhibit gains in pumping power of 2.918%,
3.08%, and 2.38%, respectively.
1 2 3 4 5
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
P
u
m
p
in
g
P
o
w
e
r
(W
)
Volume Fraction (%)
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HYNF
Zn NF
Fig. 9 (a). Pumping power with respect to particle volume
fraction
Fig. 9 (b). Drop in pressure relative to the particle volume
fraction
Due to its maximum density, the Zn/water nanofluid pro-
duces a larger pressure drop than the other nanofluids.
Moreover, viscosity is another element influencing pres-
sure drop. Ajeena et al. reported that a ZrO2-SiC/DW hybrid
nanofluid required more pumping power than water and
that a higher concentration of nanoparticles in the fluid
resulted in a greater pressure drop [27]. Figs. 10 (a) and (b)
show the second law efficiency of SFPC as a function of par-
ticle concentration for a variety of nanofluids at mass flow
rates of 0.5 kg/s and 0.1 kg/s. Exergy efficiency is defined as
the ratio of the net exergy obtained by the working fluid to
the available exergy of the collector. The specific heat of
the hybrid nanofluid is 4.49 % lower than that of the base
fluid. Its efficiency of energy increases by 2.60 %. Mouli et
al. discovered that the exergy efficiency increases as the
volume percentage of nanoparticles increases [28].
Fig. 10 (a). Exergy efficiency with respect to particle vol-
ume fraction
Fig. 10 (b). Exergy efficiency with respect to particle vol-
ume fraction
6. CONCLUSIONS
Metallic nanoparticles possess superior thermal transport
characteristics and are intrinsically highly reactive. Hybrid
nanofluids were developed to maximize the synergistic ef-
fects of suspensions containing monometallic nanoparti-
cles. Consequently, hybridizing nanoparticles with metal
oxides results in enhanced thermophysical properties.
These improved thermophysical characteristics in solar flat
1 2 3 4 5
4570
4580
4590
4600
4610
4620
4630
4640
4650
P
re
s
s
u
re
d
ro
p
(
P
a
)
Volume Fraction (%)
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HYNF
Zn NF
1 2 3 4 5
1.92
1.94
1.96
1.98
2.00
2.02
2.04
S
e
c
o
n
d
L
a
w
E
ff
ic
ie
n
c
y
(
%
)
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn NF
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HYNF
m = 0.5 kg/s
1 2 3 4 5
1.94
1.96
1.98
2.00
2.02
2.04
2.06
2.08
2.10
2.12
2.14
S
e
c
o
n
d
L
a
w
E
ff
ic
ie
n
c
y
(
%
)
Volume Fraction (%)
Zn NF
ZnO NF
Zn-ZnO HYNF
m = 0.1 kg/s
134
Відновлювана енергетика. № 4/2025 | Сонячна енергетика
plate collectors (SFPCs) lead to higher energy and exergy
efficiencies. In this study, hybrid nanofluid Zn–ZnO/water
and its constituent mono nanofluids were used to evaluate
the first and second law performance of SFPCs, and the re-
sults were compared with those obtained using water.
1. Energy and Exergy Efficiency: Exergy data showed that
the hybrid nanofluid increased energy efficiency by
2.60%. On the other hand, the exergy efficiency of the
Zn/water and ZnO/water nanofluids increased by 2.18
and 2.32%, respectively.
2. Useful Heat Gain: The usable heat gain of ZnO/water,
hybrid nanofluid, and Zn/water nanofluids increased by
1.02%, 2.15%, and 0.90%, respectively, due to the im-
provement in thermophysical characteristics.
3. Thermal Conductivity: While the Zn/water and
ZnO/water nanofluids demonstrated improvements of
16.71% and 16.36%, respectively, the Zn-ZnO/water hy-
brid nanofluid demonstrated a gain of 18.52% in ther-
mal conductivity when compared to water.
4. Collector Efficiency: The hybrid nanofluid's collector ef-
ficiency rose by 2.23%. 1.05% for the ZnO/water
nanofluid, and 0.93% for the Zn/water nanofluid when
compared to water.
5. Pressure Drop: The Zn-ZnO/water, ZnO/water and
Zn/water nanofluids exhibit a penalty in terms of pres-
sure drop, with increases of 2.918%, 2.38%, and 3.08%,
respectively, in comparison to water.
Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid significantly enhances the
performance of SFPCs, providing notable improvements in
thermal conductivity, useful heat gain, and energy effi-
ciency, despite the associated increase in pressure drop.
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| id | veorgua-article-579 |
| institution | Vidnovluvana energetika |
| keywords_txt_mv | keywords |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-07-19T01:17:41Z |
| publishDate | 2025 |
| publisher | Institute of Renewable Energy National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
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| resource_txt_mv | veorgua/18/7889cb57bd165bfda8dd4afe28a7a718.pdf |
| spelling | veorgua-article-5792026-07-18T06:32:23Z PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR PVT COLLECTOR USING ZN-ZNO/WATER HYBRID NANOFLUID ПІДВИЩЕННЯ ЕФЕКТИВНОСТІ ПЛОСКОГО СОНЯЧНОГО PVT-КОЛЕКТОРА ЗА РАХУНОК ВИКОРИСТАННЯ ГІБРИДНОГО НАНОРІДИННОГО ТЕПЛОНОСІЯ Zn–ZnO/ВОДА Sakthivel , K. Dhanushkodi , S. Sudhakar, K. Balu, P. Ivanchuk , V. Solar flat plate collector, Thermo physical properties, Hybrid nanofluid, Energy efficiency, Exergy efficiency. інтеграція відновлюваної енергії, асинхронний двигун з подвійною кліткою (DCIM), енергоефективність, теплові характеристики, моментні характеристики, сталість транспорту, аналіз методом скінченних елементів (FEA), MATLAB-моделювання. Providing an analytical examination of the solar flat plate collector (SFPC) is the goal of this work. Using Zn/water, ZnO/water nanofluids, and Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid. This study compares various mass flow rates and concentrations of nanoparticles. Heat transfer, energy and exergy efficiency, and pressure drop characteristics of SFPC operation on these nanofluids are investigated. The addition of Zn/water nanofluid 16.71%, ZnO/water nanofluid 16.36%, and Zn-ZnO/water hybrid naofluid 18.52% nanoparticles enhances the working fluid's thermal conductivity. Gain in heat is improved with use of Nanofluids Zn/water nanofluid 1.02%, ZnO/water nanofluid 0.90%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid 2.15%. Efficiency improvements observed in SFPC Zn/water nanofluid: 0.93%, ZnO/water nanofluid 1.05%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid: 2.23%. The increase in pumping power required for the nanofluids: Zn/water nanofluid 3.08%, ZnO/water nanofluid 2.38%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid: 2.918%. Improvements in energy efficiency as per exergy analysis: Zn/water nanofluid 2.32%, ZnO/water nanofluid 2.18%, Zn-ZnO/water hybrid nanofluid 2.60%. In solar flat plate collectors, hybrid nanofluid Zn-ZnO/water significantly improves efficiency. The hybrid nanofluid exhibits the highest thermal conductivity and the most substantial improvement in collector efficiency and usable heat gain among the tested fluids. Additionally, despite a slight increase in pumping power requirements, the overall energy and exergy performance enhancements make hybrid nanofluids suitable for SFPC applications. These findings suggest that integrating hybrid nanofluids in SFPCs can lead to more efficient solar energy systems, potentially contributing to better energy management and sustainability. Further research could explore optimizing nanoparticle concentration and flow rates to maximize these benefits while managing pumping power requirements. Метою цієї роботи є аналіз робочих характеристик плоского сонячного колектора. Дослідження проводиться з використанням нанорідин Zn/вода, ZnO/вода та гібридної нанорідини Zn–ZnO/вода. У роботі порівняно різні витрати теплоносія та концентрації наночастинок. Досліджено теплопередачу, енергетичну та ексергетичну ефективність, а також характер зміни гідравлічного опору при роботі плоского сонячного колектора з різними нанорідинами. Додавання нанорідини Zn/вода покращує теплопровідність робочої рідини на 16,71%, нанорідини ZnO/вода — на 16,36%, гібридної нанорідини Zn–ZnO/вода — на 18,52%. Приріст корисного тепла покращується за застосування нанорідини Zn/вода на 1,02%, ZnO/вода — на 0,90%, Zn–ZnO/вода — на 2,15%. Підвищення ефективності роботи плоского сонячного колектора становило у разі використання нанорідини Zn/вода 0,93%, ZnO/вода — 1,05%, Zn–ZnO/вода — 2,23%. Зростання потужності, необхідної на прокачування, складало у випадку застосування нанорідини Zn/вода 3,08%, ZnO/вода — 2,38%, Zn–ZnO/вода — 2,918%. Підвищення енергоефективності за результатами ексергетичного аналізу становило у випадку застосування нанорідини Zn/вода 2,32%, ZnO/вода — 2,18%, Zn–ZnO/вода — 2,60%. Гібридна нанорідина Zn–ZnO/вода демонструє значне підвищення ефективності плоского сонячного колектора, забезпечуючи найвищу теплопровідність та найбільший приріст енергоефективності серед досліджуваних робочих рідин у плоских сонячних колекторах.Попри незначне збільшення енергоспоживання на прокачування, загальні показники енергетичної та ексергетичної ефективності свідчать про доцільність застосування гібридних нанорідин у колекторах такого типу. Отримані результати демонструють, що використання гібридних нанорідин підвищує ефективність сонячних систем генерації, покращує можливості енергоменеджменту та сприяє досягненню сталості. Подальші дослідження можуть бути спрямовані на оптимізацію концентрації наночастинок та витрат теплоносія в цілях максимізації ефекту та мінімізації витрат на перекачування. Institute of Renewable Energy National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine 2025-12-27 Article Article application/pdf https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/579 10.36296/1819-8058.2025.4(83).126-135 Vidnovluvana energetika ; No. 4(83) (2025): Scientific and applied Journal renewable energy ; 126-135 Возобновляемая энергетика; ##issue.no## 4(83) (2025): Scientific and applied Journal renewable energy ; 126-135 Відновлювана енергетика; № 4(83) (2025): Науково-прикладний журнал Відновлювана енергетика; 126-135 2664-8172 1819-8058 10.36296/1819-8058.2025.4(83) en https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/579/490 Copyright (c) 2025 K. Sakthivel , S. Dhanushkodi , K. Sudhakar, P. Balu, V. Ivanchuk https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 |
| spellingShingle | Solar flat plate collector Thermo physical properties Hybrid nanofluid Energy efficiency Exergy efficiency. Sakthivel , K. Dhanushkodi , S. Sudhakar, K. Balu, P. Ivanchuk , V. PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR PVT COLLECTOR USING ZN-ZNO/WATER HYBRID NANOFLUID |
| title | PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR PVT COLLECTOR USING ZN-ZNO/WATER HYBRID NANOFLUID |
| title_alt | ПІДВИЩЕННЯ ЕФЕКТИВНОСТІ ПЛОСКОГО СОНЯЧНОГО PVT-КОЛЕКТОРА ЗА РАХУНОК ВИКОРИСТАННЯ ГІБРИДНОГО НАНОРІДИННОГО ТЕПЛОНОСІЯ Zn–ZnO/ВОДА |
| title_full | PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR PVT COLLECTOR USING ZN-ZNO/WATER HYBRID NANOFLUID |
| title_fullStr | PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR PVT COLLECTOR USING ZN-ZNO/WATER HYBRID NANOFLUID |
| title_full_unstemmed | PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR PVT COLLECTOR USING ZN-ZNO/WATER HYBRID NANOFLUID |
| title_short | PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR PVT COLLECTOR USING ZN-ZNO/WATER HYBRID NANOFLUID |
| title_sort | performance enhancement of flat plate solar pvt collector using zn-zno/water hybrid nanofluid |
| topic | Solar flat plate collector Thermo physical properties Hybrid nanofluid Energy efficiency Exergy efficiency. |
| topic_facet | Solar flat plate collector Thermo physical properties Hybrid nanofluid Energy efficiency Exergy efficiency. інтеграція відновлюваної енергії асинхронний двигун з подвійною кліткою (DCIM) енергоефективність теплові характеристики моментні характеристики сталість транспорту аналіз методом скінченних елементів (FEA) MATLAB-моделювання. |
| url | https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/579 |
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