INTERNALLY RECONFIGURED SMART PHOTOVOLTAIC SOURCES
This paper examines the design principles of smart photovoltaic power sources. It explores the devices that transform traditional photovoltaic sources into smart electrical energy systems and describes the hardware required to implement these intelligent functions. The study investigates the structu...
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| author | Bondarenko , D. |
| author_facet | Bondarenko , D. |
| author_institution_txt_mv | [
{
"author": "D. Bondarenko ",
"institution": "Institute of Renewable Energy, NAS of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine"
}
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| author_sort | Bondarenko , D. |
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| description | This paper examines the design principles of smart photovoltaic power sources. It explores the devices that transform traditional photovoltaic sources into smart electrical energy systems and describes the hardware required to implement these intelligent functions. The study investigates the structural principles of photovoltaic sources with reconfigurable internal topologies. It demonstrates the feasibility of employing switched connections instead of fixed wiring for interconnecting solar cells within a panel, noting that such connections can be dynamically controlled. The use of field-effect transistors is identified as the most suitable switching element. The paper contrasts the conventional approach, where source topology is modified by connecting or disconnecting individual photovoltaic cells, with an alternative method utilizing a switching unit to arrange elements in parallel or series configurations. A practical implementation of a photovoltaic panel is proposed, featuring cells interconnected via commutation cells under the control of a programmable microcontroller. Furthermore, the principle of forming an electrical grid incorporating these smart photovoltaic panels is presented. Two distinct configurations are realized: one utilizing traditional communication networks and another employing hybrid power-communication lines and devices. Key advantages of smart photovoltaic sources are highlighted, emphasizing that power systems equipped with such sources benefit from the dynamic optimization of generation parameters. Finally, the principles for developing a data exchange communication protocol between smart photovoltaic sources are described, followed by concluding remarks. |
| doi_str_mv | 10.36296/1819-8058.2026.2(85).167-173 |
| first_indexed | 2026-07-10T01:00:19Z |
| format | Article |
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167
Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Сонячна енергетика
6.24: 004.942 https://doi.org/10.36296/1819-8058.2026.2(85).167-173
INTERNALLY RECONFIGURED SMART PHOTOVOLTAIC SOURCES
Received May 14, 2026; accepted Jun. 26, 2026
Available online June. 30, 2026
Bondarenko D.
Author for correspondence: Bondarenko Dmytro,
e-mail: dima7007bond@gmail.com
Abstract. This paper examines the design principles of smart photovoltaic power sources. It explores the devices
that transform traditional photovoltaic sources into smart electrical energy systems and describes the hardware
required to implement these intelligent functions. The study investigates the structural principles of photovoltaic
sources with reconfigurable internal topologies. It demonstrates the feasibility of employing switched connections
instead of fixed wiring for interconnecting solar cells within a panel, noting that such connections can be dynami-
cally controlled. The use of field-effect transistors is identified as the most suitable switching element. The paper
contrasts the conventional approach, where source topology is modified by connecting or disconnecting individual
photovoltaic cells, with an alternative method utilizing a switching unit to arrange elements in parallel or series
configurations. A practical implementation of a photovoltaic panel is proposed, featuring cells interconnected via
commutation cells under the control of a programmable microcontroller. Furthermore, the principle of forming an
electrical grid incorporating these smart photovoltaic panels is presented. Two distinct configurations are realized:
one utilizing traditional communication networks and another employing hybrid power-communication lines and
devices. Key advantages of smart photovoltaic sources are highlighted, emphasizing that power systems equipped
with such sources benefit from the dynamic optimization of generation parameters. Finally, the principles for de-
veloping a data exchange communication protocol between smart photovoltaic sources are described, followed
by concluding remarks.
Key words: smart energy, photovoltaic source, internally reconfigurable source, solar panel, solar cell.
ВНУТРІШНЬО ПЕРЕКОНФІГУРОВАНІ ІНТЕЛЕКТУАЛЬНІ ФОТОЕЛЕКТРИЧНІ ДЖЕРЕЛА
Отримано 20 січ. 2026 р.; рекомендовано до публікації 23 бер. 2026 р.
Доступно онлайн 31 бер. 2026 р.
Бондаренко Д.
Автор для кореспонденції: Бондаренко Дмитро,
e-mail: dima7007bond@gmail.com
Анотація. У роботі розглядаються принципи побудови інтелектуальних фотоелектричних джерел.
Розглянути пристрої, за допомогою яких, традиційне фотоелектричне джерело стає інтелектуаль-
ним джерелом електричної енергії. Описано необхідне обладнання для реалізації джерел з інтелектуа-
льними функціями. Розглянуті принципи побудови фотоелектричних джерел зі змінною внутрішньою
топологією. Показана можливість застосування для з'єднання фотоелементів в панелі замість фіксо-
ваних з'єднань, комутованих з'єднань. Відмічено що такі з'єднання можуть керуватись динамічно. Від-
мічено, що в якості ключів доцільно використовувати польові транзистори. Показано традиційний під-
хід, в якому топологія джерела міняється за рахунок приєднання та від’єднання фотоелектричних
елементів, а також показано альтернативний шлях побудови джерел з використанням комутаційного
вузла, який з’єднує елементи паралельно чи послідовно. Запропонована реалізація фотоелектричної па-
нелі з елементів, які з’єднані за допомогою комутаційної комірки під керуванням програмно керованого
мікроконтролера. Показано принцип утворення електричної мережі, яка містить інтелектуальні фо-
тоелектричні панель. Реалізовано два варіанти, один за допомогою традиційних комунікаційних ме-
реж, інший за допомогою комбінованих електрично-комунікаційних ліній та засобів зв’язку. Акценто-
вано на ключових перевагах інтелектуальних фотоелектричних джерел. Відмічено, що перевагою
енергетичних систем з такими джерелами є динамічна оптимізація генераційних параметрів. Описані
принципи побудови комунікаційного протоколу обміну даними між інтелектуальними фотоелектрич-
ними джерелами. Зроблені висновки.
канд. техн. наук
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5629-930X
Інститут відновлюваної енергетики НАН
України, Київ, Україна
PhD
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5629-930X
Institute of Renewable Energy, NAS of Ukraine,
Kyiv, Ukraine
168
Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Сонячна енергетика
Ключові слова: інтелектуальна енергетика, фотоелектричне джерело, внутрішньо переконфігуро-
ване джерело, сонячна панель, сонячний елемент.
Introduction
The advancement of solar energy and its integration into
various sectors of the economy and industry necessitate
comprehensive and in-depth scientific research focused on
the efficiency and versatility of such power sources [1, 2].
Accordingly, the deployment of diverse energy solutions
driven by industrial and consumer demand prompts re-
search into the flexibility and controllability of power
sources. On the other hand, progress in microcontroller
technology and communication systems enables the inte-
gration of digital intelligence directly into these sources, fa-
cilitating the development of integrated smart energy solu-
tions. Furthermore, solar energy sources are highly
conducive to the implementation of smart solutions, as
they consist of arrays of individual generating units that al-
low for flexible control and management.
The core concept of this research is that a smart solar
source is not merely a silicon wafer generating current, but
a comprehensive system integrated with electronics to op-
timize performance at the level of each individual module
or panel.
Objective
The objective of this research is to leverage variable inter-
nal source topology to develop photovoltaic modules and
panels that align with modern smart technology standards,
specifically regarding versatility, controllability, and com-
munication capabilities.
Methods and materials. System Components and Key
Technologies
For a photovoltaic source to become 'smart,' it must move
away from the traditional design principle of fixed output
parameters and be equipped with additional electronic and
power switching hardware. The transition of a conventional
PV source into an 'smart' one is facilitated by the integra-
tion of the following devices: Power Optimizers for Maxi-
mum Power Point Tracking (MPPT); microinverters to con-
vert direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC) directly
within the generator, effectively turning the source into an
independent power plant; and monitoring and communica-
tion systems (such as Wi-Fi, Zigbee, or PLC) for data trans-
mission. Notably, unlike traditional systems where multiple
panels are connected into a single string, smart panels pos-
sess their own 'brains' in the form of MLPE (Module-Level
Power Electronics) [3, 4].
The paper proposes moving away from external electronic
devices by delving into the internal circuitry of the source,
integrating many of the aforementioned devices directly
into the topology of generating electrical circuits, or replac-
ing certain necessary components by modifying output pa-
rameters through changes in internal topology. Thus, the
internal circuitry of a smart source can be either a combi-
nation of a classical semiconductor photovoltaic structure
and an integrated MLPE module [5], or a combination of
switching units with a control module for dynamic topology
modification and a communication device. In other words,
the electronic architecture of a smart PV panel consists of
internal switching elements or external power control ele-
ments, a communication and telemetry unit, and, if neces-
sary, an AC conversion unit.
Internal Cell Commutation.
A standard photovoltaic (PV) panel consists of 60 or 72 so-
lar cells connected in series to form groups known as sub-
strings. In conventional modules, these connections are es-
tablished via a busbar integrated with bypass diodes, typi-
cally featuring three Schottky diodes within the junction
box. In contrast, smart panels utilize active MOSFET-based
bypass controllers instead of passive diodes. These control-
lers exhibit a significantly lower forward voltage drop,
thereby minimizing the formation of hotspots and reducing
power losses under partial shading conditions. This config-
uration establishes an internal source topology that facili-
tates the connection or disconnection of an individual gen-
erating cell to a sub-string, as well as the integration of
strings into the panel (Fig. 1) [6].
Fig. 1. Connection of photovoltaic cells to a busbar
An alternative approach involves cell switching based on a
topology that enables the direct parallel or series connec-
tion of a power cell within a panel to other generating ele-
ments. In this configuration, switching occurs between the
individual cells themselves rather than through a common
busbar (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2. Connection of photovoltaic cells by a commutation
cell
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The principles of dynamic change in the internal source to-
pology, as presented in Figure 1 and Figure 2, are fundamen-
tally different and can be applied either independently or in
combination, depending on the required output parameters
of the power supply. It is appropriate to utilize MOSFETs as
switches due to their numerous advantages [7]. Notably, the
switching principle illustrated in Figure 2 can be effectively
implemented by forming switching nodes— commutation
cells — which significantly simplifies the fabrication, model-
ing and simulation of such power sources [8].
External Power Control. Architecture of the Integrated
Optimizer (DC/DC)
The majority of smart panels integrate an optimizer directly
into the Junction Box. The circuit architecture consists of
the following components:
• A high-frequency pulsed converter [9], which includes
an input filter (low ESR capacitors designed to smooth
ripples from the photovoltaic cells);
• A power stage (Buck-Boost or Interleaved Buck), utilizing
MOSFETs with low channel resistance. In high-end mod-
els, Gallium Nitride (GaN) transistors are employed to op-
erate at frequencies of 200–500 kHz, thereby allowing for
a reduction in the size of the inductors [10]. The primary
function of this stage is to modulate the panel's output
voltage to ensure that the product P = VI remains maxim-
ized, regardless of the load on the entire string;
• A microcontroller unit (MCU) [11], which executes the
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) algorithm [12,
13] and analyzes the current-voltage characteristic (IV-
curve) every few milliseconds.
Communication and Telemetry Block
This component of the circuit, which is absent in conven-
tional panels, is responsible for the system's "intelligence."
It comprises:
• A communicator, which may be a standard unit requir-
ing a separate communication line or a Power Line Com-
munication (PLC) modem [14]. The latter overlays a
high-frequency data signal onto the DC power wires, en-
abling the transmission of voltage, current, and temper-
ature data to the central inverter without additional
wiring [15, 16];
• A temperature sensor, integrated directly into the cir-
cuit board or attached to the backsheet of the panel to
monitor for overheating;
• A Rapid shutdown unit, a safety circuit that fully opens
the circuit upon receiving a "safety" signal, thereby de-
energizing the entire rooftop system via a power switch
[17, 18].
AC Generation Block (Microinverter)
In the case of an AC inverter [19, 20], the system incorpo-
rates a full-scale two-stage converter consisting of:
• A DC/DC Isolation Stage, featuring a high-frequency
transformer for galvanic isolation and stepping up the
voltage to 380V;
• A DC/AC Inverter Stage, utilizing a full-bridge (H-Bridge)
configuration with IGBTs or MOSFETs to generate a
pure sine wave;
• An EMI Filter, designed to suppress electromagnetic in-
terference and prevent the panel's operation from in-
troducing "noise" into the domestic grid.
The primary challenge associated with this circuit design is
reliability. The electronics must operate on high-tempera-
ture rooftops (70–80°C) for a lifespan of 20–25 years. Con-
sequently, all components must undergo rigorous certifica-
tion (Automotive or Industrial grade), and the printed
circuit board (PCB) is typically encapsulated in a special
compound to provide protection against moisture and vi-
brations. Furthermore, the self-consumption of energy by
these devices must be minimized to avoid compromising
the overall efficiency and advantages of the system.
To connect multiple panels equipped with microinverters,
it is necessary to implement a synchronization or grid-entry
device, which can be either a standalone unit or integrated
into the MCU or communication block [21, 22].
Results
Based on the principles of dynamic photovoltaic cell com-
mutation described above, this study implemented a prac-
tical circuit (Fig. 3) comprising eight power elements con-
nected via controlled switching units. This configuration
enables dynamic modifications to the internal source topol-
ogy, thereby facilitating the attainment of the required out-
put parameters.
It should be noted that for parallel connections within a se-
ries-parallel switching cell, it is necessary to employ pairs of
back-to-back transistors, as field-effect transistors contain
an inherent body diode [23]. A critical component of the
proposed system is the microcontroller unit (MCU), which
manages the switching of the transistors according to a pre-
defined algorithm. To perform this function, a programma-
ble logic controller [24] based on ARM processors [25], like
STM32 or Atmel microcontrollers [26, 27], or similar plat-
forms may be utilized.
These controllers can be directly interfaced with the field-
effect transistors, as specific transistor series feature logic-
level gates (5V), which is standard for the outputs of the
aforementioned MCUs. Furthermore, the primary function
of such a controller is to acquire data regarding the state of
the source elements, specifically monitoring the generated
voltage and current for both individual cells and groups of
elements.
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Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Сонячна енергетика
Fig. 3. Connection of PV-cells to sub-strings in a module or panel by commutation cells
It should be noted that by implementing a power source
through dynamic topology reconfiguration, a converter-
based optimizer—consisting of step-up (boost) and step-
down (buck) stages—can be excluded from the design. Fur-
thermore, dynamic commutation, coupled with a special-
ized algorithm for a programmable controller, enables the
realization of inverter functionality. This allows for the gen-
eration of an alternating current (AC) output with the
required waveform without the need for an external device
[28].
Consequently, to develop a smart power source based on
the circuit proposed in Figure 3, it is sufficient to integrate
a controller capable of grid monitoring and performing
communication and telemetry functions. This integration
facilitates the networking of multiple sources into a unified
system (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Integration of multiple sources into a unified smart system
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Discussion
The research into the construction of smart photovoltaic
sources demonstrates the development of an advanced en-
ergy system that utilizes intelligent hardware for dynamic
power management. This approach allows sources to oper-
ate collaboratively, optimizing performance, extending op-
erational lifespan, and creating modular, adaptive energy
solutions for complex environments, such as cluster sys-
tems [29].
A significant result of implementing controlled connections
is dynamic optimization. Specifically, the system can modify
source properties in real time, prioritizing specific output
parameters based on the requirements of the application.
In one of the implemented circuit solutions, smart source
management—achieved by bypassing weaker elements,
isolating faulty cells, or redistributing energy—enhances
the overall performance of the power system. In another
configuration, a universal switching unit (commutation cell)
enables dynamic alteration of output parameters without
significant energy losses.
The application of an optimal topology [30], utilizing a se-
ries-parallel commutation unit, facilitates a wide range of
output values and various output signal waveforms. Fur-
thermore, it is essential to emphasize the specific key ad-
vantages of smart panels:
1. Efficiency under shading conditions. In conventional
systems, if a single panel is shaded (e.g., by a chimney
or a tree), the power of the entire string drops to the
level of the weakest link. A smart panel isolates the is-
sue: while the shaded module operates at reduced ca-
pacity, all other modules continue to generate maxi-
mum power.
2. Granular Monitoring. Real-time production data for
each specific panel can be accessed via specialized soft-
ware. This allows for the immediate detection of mal-
functions or soiling on individual modules.
3. Enhanced Safety (Rapid Shutdown). In the event of an
emergency or maintenance, smart systems can auto-
matically reduce the voltage of each panel to a safe
level, which is critical for the safety of first responders
and maintenance personnel [17, 18].
4. Installation Versatility. Since each panel operates inde-
pendently, they can be installed at different angles and
on various roof slopes within a single string.
5. Comprehensive Control. These systems provide precise
tracking of the investment's state and deliver notifica-
tions regarding any operational anomalies.
Regarding the communication architecture of smart sys-
tems, it is proposed that, in accordance with the OSI model
[31], the DataLink layer or Network layers of the infor-
mation network—distributed via dedicated lines or Power
Line Communication (PLC) (Fig. 5)—utilize a frame or
packet structure containing the address of the controlled
device. This enables the integration of a large number of
sources into a distributed system with comprehensive data
transparency for every node.
Fig. 5. Integration of multiple sources into a unified smart system by PLC
Furthermore, it is essential to specify that the data ex-
change protocol between the controllers must encompass
commands for reading and writing data from the system
components, as well as specific control directives for the
power elements. The master controller within the network
should issue control commands to the subordinate man-
aged sources. Consequently, by acquiring real-time data
and executing system-level control, the master controller
can select operational modes according to a predefined
grid management algorithm to ensure optimal system per-
formance and efficiency.
The unification of the logic, address space, and communi-
cation protocol establishes a new class of devices: smart
photovoltaic units or components. These devices are char-
acterized by their capacity for self-organization and self-
monitoring, regardless of the overall system configuration.
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Given its versatility and potential, the proposed approach
provides a robust framework for the development of both
small-scale standalone systems and large-scale grid-tied
photovoltaic networks.
Conclusion
Smart photovoltaic sources serve as a pivotal instrument
for the implementation of universal and adaptive energy
systems. Furthermore, the application of controlled con-
nections represents a promising frontier in scientific re-
search and engineering, facilitating the development of
versatile generating units and smart grids.
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| id | veorgua-article-627 |
| institution | Vidnovluvana energetika |
| keywords_txt_mv | keywords |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-07-10T01:00:19Z |
| publishDate | 2026 |
| publisher | Institute of Renewable Energy National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| record_format | ojs |
| resource_txt_mv | veorgua/a4/aa5497fd2a3fd74044c0a5e70ff173a4.pdf |
| spelling | veorgua-article-6272026-07-09T12:14:07Z INTERNALLY RECONFIGURED SMART PHOTOVOLTAIC SOURCES ВНУТРІШНЬО ПЕРЕКОНФІГУРОВАНІ ІНТЕЛЕКТУАЛЬНІ ФОТОЕЛЕКТРИЧНІ ДЖЕРЕЛА Bondarenko , D. smart energy, photovoltaic source, internally reconfigurable source, solar panel, solar cell. інтелектуальна енергетика, фотоелектричне джерело, внутрішньо переконфігуроване джерело, сонячна панель, сонячний елемент. This paper examines the design principles of smart photovoltaic power sources. It explores the devices that transform traditional photovoltaic sources into smart electrical energy systems and describes the hardware required to implement these intelligent functions. The study investigates the structural principles of photovoltaic sources with reconfigurable internal topologies. It demonstrates the feasibility of employing switched connections instead of fixed wiring for interconnecting solar cells within a panel, noting that such connections can be dynamically controlled. The use of field-effect transistors is identified as the most suitable switching element. The paper contrasts the conventional approach, where source topology is modified by connecting or disconnecting individual photovoltaic cells, with an alternative method utilizing a switching unit to arrange elements in parallel or series configurations. A practical implementation of a photovoltaic panel is proposed, featuring cells interconnected via commutation cells under the control of a programmable microcontroller. Furthermore, the principle of forming an electrical grid incorporating these smart photovoltaic panels is presented. Two distinct configurations are realized: one utilizing traditional communication networks and another employing hybrid power-communication lines and devices. Key advantages of smart photovoltaic sources are highlighted, emphasizing that power systems equipped with such sources benefit from the dynamic optimization of generation parameters. Finally, the principles for developing a data exchange communication protocol between smart photovoltaic sources are described, followed by concluding remarks. У роботі розглядаються принципи побудови інтелектуальних фотоелектричних джерел. Розглянути пристрої, за допомогою яких, традиційне фотоелектричне джерело стає інтелектуальним джерелом електричної енергії. Описано необхідне обладнання для реалізації джерел з інтелектуальними функціями. Розглянуті принципи побудови фотоелектричних джерел зі змінною внутрішньою топологією. Показана можливість застосування для з'єднання фотоелементів в панелі замість фіксованих з'єднань, комутованих з'єднань. Відмічено що такі з'єднання можуть керуватись динамічно.  Відмічено, що в якості ключів доцільно використовувати польові транзистори. Показано традиційний підхід, в якому топологія джерела міняється за рахунок приєднання та від’єднання фотоелектричних елементів, а також показано альтернативний шлях побудови джерел з використанням комутаційного вузла, який з’єднує елементи паралельно чи послідовно. Запропонована реалізація фотоелектричної панелі з елементів, які з’єднані за допомогою комутаційної комірки під керуванням програмно керованого мікроконтролера. Показано принцип утворення електричної мережі, яка містить інтелектуальні фотоелектричні панель. Реалізовано два варіанти, один за допомогою традиційних комунікаційних мереж, інший за допомогою комбінованих електрично-комунікаційних ліній та засобів зв’язку. Акцентовано на ключових перевагах інтелектуальних фотоелектричних джерел. Відмічено, що перевагою енергетичних систем з такими джерелами є динамічна оптимізація генераційних параметрів. Описані принципи побудови комунікаційного протоколу обміну даними між інтелектуальними фотоелектричними джерелами. Зроблені висновки. Institute of Renewable Energy National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine 2026-06-30 Article Article application/pdf https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/627 10.36296/1819-8058.2026.2(85).167-173 Vidnovluvana energetika ; No. 2(85) (2026): Scientific and applied Journal renewable energy ; 167-173 Возобновляемая энергетика; № 2(85) (2026): Scientific and applied Journal renewable energy ; 167-173 Відновлювана енергетика; № 2(85) (2026): Науково-прикладний журнал Відновлювана енергетика; 167-173 2664-8172 1819-8058 10.36296/1819-8058.2026.2(85) en https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/627/538 Copyright (c) 2026 Vidnovluvana energetika |
| spellingShingle | smart energy photovoltaic source internally reconfigurable source solar panel solar cell. Bondarenko , D. INTERNALLY RECONFIGURED SMART PHOTOVOLTAIC SOURCES |
| title | INTERNALLY RECONFIGURED SMART PHOTOVOLTAIC SOURCES |
| title_alt | ВНУТРІШНЬО ПЕРЕКОНФІГУРОВАНІ ІНТЕЛЕКТУАЛЬНІ ФОТОЕЛЕКТРИЧНІ ДЖЕРЕЛА |
| title_full | INTERNALLY RECONFIGURED SMART PHOTOVOLTAIC SOURCES |
| title_fullStr | INTERNALLY RECONFIGURED SMART PHOTOVOLTAIC SOURCES |
| title_full_unstemmed | INTERNALLY RECONFIGURED SMART PHOTOVOLTAIC SOURCES |
| title_short | INTERNALLY RECONFIGURED SMART PHOTOVOLTAIC SOURCES |
| title_sort | internally reconfigured smart photovoltaic sources |
| topic | smart energy photovoltaic source internally reconfigurable source solar panel solar cell. |
| topic_facet | smart energy photovoltaic source internally reconfigurable source solar panel solar cell. інтелектуальна енергетика фотоелектричне джерело внутрішньо переконфігуроване джерело сонячна панель сонячний елемент. |
| url | https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/627 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT bondarenkod internallyreconfiguredsmartphotovoltaicsources AT bondarenkod vnutríšnʹoperekonfígurovanííntelektualʹnífotoelektričnídžerela |