AN IMPACT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH GARCINIA GUMMI-GUTTA BIODIESEL
The current study assesses the effect of injection pressure on the performance of a single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine running on biodiesel extracted from Garcinia gummi-gutta. The experiments were carried out on diesel, B20 (20% biodiesel and 80% diesel), B20 with Hemispherical Combusti...
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| Date: | 2026 |
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Vidnovluvana energetika| _version_ | 1870287619231842304 |
|---|---|
| author | Sekharraj, K. Balu, P. Subramanian , M. Vasanthkumar, P. Didkivska , G. |
| author_facet | Sekharraj, K. Balu, P. Subramanian , M. Vasanthkumar, P. Didkivska , G. |
| author_institution_txt_mv | [
{
"author": " K. Sekharraj",
"institution": "Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India"
},
{
"author": " P. Balu",
"institution": "Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India"
},
{
"author": "M. Subramanian ",
"institution": "Adithya Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India"
},
{
"author": " P. Vasanthkumar",
"institution": "SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Ramapuram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India"
},
{
"author": "G. Didkivska ",
"institution": "Institute of Renewable Energy, NAS of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine"
}
] |
| author_sort | Sekharraj, K. |
| baseUrl_str | https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/oai |
| collection | OJS |
| datestamp_date | 2026-07-09T12:14:07Z |
| description | The current study assesses the effect of injection pressure on the performance of a single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine running on biodiesel extracted from Garcinia gummi-gutta. The experiments were carried out on diesel, B20 (20% biodiesel and 80% diesel), B20 with Hemispherical Combustion Chamber (HCC), and B20 with Toroidal Re-entrant Combustion Chamber (TRCC) at standard injection pressure of 200 bar. At full load, the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of diesel was found to be 32.8%, whereas that of B20 was 30.9%. The use of HCC increased BTE to 31.6%, whereas B20+TRCC at standard pressure increased BTE to 33.4%, which is a clear indication of better air-fuel mixing and turbulence. Further change in injection pressure for TRCC configuration showed that at 180 bar, BTE was 32.1% with brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of 0.282 kg/kWh; at 200 bar, BTE increased to 33.4% with 0.268 kg/kWh; at 220 bar, maximum efficiency was attained with 34.6% BTE and 0.254 kg/kWh; and at 240 bar, BTE slightly dropped to 34.2% with 0.259 kg/kWh. Analysis of the emission revealed that CO emission reduced from 0.42% (diesel) and 0.38% (B20) to 0.24% at 220 bar, while HC emission reduced from 54 ppm to 38 ppm and smoke opacity reduced from 58 HSU to 44 HSU. But NOx emission increased from 842 ppm (diesel) to 910 ppm at 220 bar due to increased peak temperatures. Maximum cylinder pressure also increased from 67 bar (B20 standard) to 72 bar at 220 bar injection pressure. Thus, the B20+TRCC combination at 220 bar had the optimal trade-off between efficiency enhancement and emission control, thereby establishing the suitability of Garcinia gummi-gutta biodiesel in compression ignition engines.  |
| doi_str_mv | 10.36296/1819-8058.2026.2(85).453-461 |
| first_indexed | 2026-07-10T01:01:06Z |
| format | Article |
| fulltext |
453
Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Біоенергетика
6.24: 004.942 https://doi.org/10.36296/1819-8058.2026.2(85).453-461
AN IMPACT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH GARCINIA GUMMI-GUTTA BIODIESEL
Received Aug. 05, 2025; accepted Jun. 26, 2026
Available online June. 30, 2026
Sekharraj K.1, Balu P.2,
Subramanian M.3, Vasanthkumar P.4,
Didkivska G.5
Author for correspondence: Balu Pandian,
e-mail: balumitauto@gmail.com
Abstract. The current study assesses the effect of injection
pressure on the performance of a single-cylinder direct injec-
tion diesel engine running on biodiesel extracted from Garcinia
gummi-gutta. The experiments were carried out on diesel, B20
(20% biodiesel and 80% diesel), B20 with Hemispherical Com-
bustion Chamber (HCC), and B20 with Toroidal Re-entrant
Combustion Chamber (TRCC) at standard injection pressure of
200 bar. At full load, the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of die-
sel was found to be 32.8%, whereas that of B20 was 30.9%.
The use of HCC increased BTE to 31.6%, whereas B20+TRCC at
standard pressure increased BTE to 33.4%, which is a clear in-
dication of better air-fuel mixing and turbulence. Further
change in injection pressure for TRCC configuration showed
that at 180 bar, BTE was 32.1% with brake specific fuel con-
sumption (BSFC) of 0.282 kg/kWh; at 200 bar, BTE increased
to 33.4% with 0.268 kg/kWh; at 220 bar, maximum efficiency was attained with 34.6% BTE and 0.254 kg/kWh;
and at 240 bar, BTE slightly dropped to 34.2% with 0.259 kg/kWh. Analysis of the emission revealed that CO emis-
sion reduced from 0.42% (diesel) and 0.38% (B20) to 0.24% at 220 bar, while HC emission reduced from 54 ppm
to 38 ppm and smoke opacity reduced from 58 HSU to 44 HSU. But NOx emission increased from 842 ppm (diesel)
to 910 ppm at 220 bar due to increased peak temperatures. Maximum cylinder pressure also increased from 67
bar (B20 standard) to 72 bar at 220 bar injection pressure. Thus, the B20+TRCC combination at 220 bar had the
optimal trade-off between efficiency enhancement and emission control, thereby establishing the suitability of
Garcinia gummi-gutta biodiesel in compression ignition engines.
Key words: Diesel engine, Garcinia Gummi-Gutta, High-pressure injection, Performance, Emissions, combus-
tion.
ВПЛИВ ТИСКУ ВПОРСКУВАННЯ НА РОБОЧІ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ ДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ДВИГУНА,
ЩО ПРАЦЮЄ НА БІОДИЗЕЛІ З ГАРЦИНІЇ ГУММІ-ГУТТА
Отримано 05 серп. 2025 р.; рекомендовано до публікації 26 чер. 2026 р.
Доступно онлайн 30 чер. 2026 р.
Секхаррадж К.¹, Балу П.², Субраманіан М.³,
Васанткумар П.⁴, Дідківська Г.⁵
Автор для кореспонденції: Балу Пандіан,
e-mail: balumitauto@gmail.com
Анотація. У цьому дослідженні оцінюється вплив тиску
впорскування на робочі характеристики одноциліндро-
1 Research Scholar, Dept. of Automobile Engin.
https://orcid.org/ 0009-0004-3562-9957
2 Associate Professor, Dept. of Automobile Engin.
https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-3480-1116
3 Dept. of Mechanical Engin.
https://orcid.org/ 0000-0001-8379-7710
4 Dept. of Mechanical Engin.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5812-428X
5 PhD (Engin.)
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8314-9606
1, 2 Bharath Institute of Higher Education and
Research, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India,
3 Adithya Institute of Technology, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India,
4 SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Ramapuram, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India,
5 Institute of Renewable Energy, NAS of Ukraine,
Kyiv, Ukraine
1 Аспірант кафедри автомобілебудування
https://orcid.org/ 0009-0004-3562-9957
2 Доцент кафедри автомобілебудування
https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-3480-1116
3 Кафедра машинобудування
https://orcid.org/ 0000-0001-8379-7710
4 Кафедра машинобудування
https://orcid.org/ 0000-0001-8379-7710
5 канд. техн. наук
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8314-9606
1, 2 Інститут вищої освіти та досліджень
454
Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Біоенергетика
вого дизельного двигуна з безпосереднім впорскуван-
ням, що працює на біодизелі, отриманому з гарцинії гу-
ммі-гутта. Експерименти проводили з використанням
дизельного палива, суміші B20 (20% біодизеля та 80%
дизельного палива), суміші B20 у двигуні з напівсферич-
ною камерою згоряння (HCC) та суміші B20 у двигуні з
тороїдальною камерою згоряння з повторним входом
(TRCC) за стандартного тиску впорскування 200 бар. За
повного навантаження ефективний термічний ККД
(BTE) дизельного палива становив 32,8%, суміші B20 —
30,9%. При застосуванні двигуна з напівсферичною ка-
мерою згоряння показник BTE підвищився до 31,6%, в
експерименті із застосуванням B20+TRCC за стандарт-
ного тиску показник BTE зріс до 33,4%, що свідчить про
краще змішування паливно-повітряної суміші та підви-
щення турбулентності. При подальшій зміні тиску упорскування у експериментах із двигуном з торої-
дальною камерою згоряння за тиску 180 бар ККД становив 32,1% за питомої ефективної витрати па-
лива (BSFC) 0,282 кг/кВт·год; при 200 бар ККД зріс до 33,4% при BSFC на рівні 0,268 кг/кВт·год; при 220 бар
було досягнуто максимальної ефективності — ККД дорівнював 34,6%, BSFC — 0,254 кг/кВт·год, відпо-
відно; тоді як при 240 бар ККД дещо зменшився до 34,2% при BSFC на рівні 0,259 кг/кВт·год. За результа-
тами аналізу викидів, обсяги викидів CO зменшилися з 0,42% (у експериментах із дизельним паливом) та
0,38% (B20) до 0,24% при тиску 220 бар, тоді як обсяг викидів незгорілих вуглеводнів зменшився з 54 ppm
до 38 ppm, а димність знизилася з 58 HSU до 44 HSU. Втім, обсяг викидів оксидів азоту зріс з 842 ppm
(дизельне паливо) до 910 ppm при 220 бар унаслідок підвищення пікових температур. Максимальний
тиск у циліндрі також зріс з 67 бар (B20 за стандартних умов) до 72 бар при тиску впорскування 220
бар. Таким чином, в експерименті з комбінацією B20+TRCC при тиску 220 бар забезпечується оптима-
льний баланс між підвищенням ефективності та контролем викидів, що підтверджує придатність бі-
одизеля з гарцинії гуммі-гутта до використання в двигунах із запалюванням від стиснення.
Ключові слова: дизельний двигун, гарцинія гуммі-гутта, високий тиск впорскування, робочі характери-
стики, викиди, згоряння.
Abbreviations
CI - Compression Ignition engines
TRCC - Toroidal Re-entrant Combustion Chambe
BP - Brake power, kW
DMDF - Diesel/Methanol Dual Fuel
CO - Carbon monoxide, % vol.
BSFC- Brake-specific fuel consumption
HC- Hydrocarbon, ppm
IMEP - Indicated mean effective pressure
NOx - Nitrogen oxides
ORG - Original Injection Pressure
DI - Direct Injection
FIP- inline Fuel Injection Pump
HRR - Heat Release Rate
ROHR - simulation of the Rate of Heat Release
CN - Cetane Numbers
PM- Particulate Matter
IP - Injection Pressure
CR- compression ratio
1. Introduction
The rising depletion of fossil fuel resources and the stricter
emission standards set globally have accelerated the search
for alternative fuels for compression ignition engines that
are renewable and sustainable [1]. Diesel engines are ex-
tensively used in transportation, agriculture, and power
production because of their higher fuel efficiency and
longer engine life; nevertheless, they are also one of the
largest sources of air pollutants such as carbon monoxide
(CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NOx),
and particulate matter. Biodiesel has been identified as a
promising alternative fuel to conventional diesel fuel due
to its renewability, biodegradability, oxygen content, and
compatibility with existing diesel engines [2]. Among the
different non-edible materials, biodiesel produced from
Garcinia gummi-gutta has been explored because of its high
oil content, desirable fatty acid profile, and accessibility in
tropical areas. The biodiesel produced from Garcinia
gummi-gutta oil has a desirable cetane number and oxygen
content, which result in better combustion and lower CO
4 Кафедра машинобудування
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5812-428X
5 канд. техн. наук
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8314-9606
1, 2 Інститут вищої освіти та досліджень
«Бхарат», м. Ченнаї, штат Тамілнад, Індія,
3 Технологічний інститут «Адітья», м. Коїмба-
торе, штат Тамілнад, Індія,
4 Інститут науки і технологій SRM, Рамапурам,
м. Ченнаї, штат Тамілнад, Індія,
5 Інститут відновлюваної енергетики НАН
України, Київ, Україна.
455
Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Біоенергетика
and HC emissions. However, its slightly higher viscosity and
lower calorific value may impact spray formation, atomiza-
tion, and engine performance. Hence, proper engine oper-
ating conditions are required to ensure better efficiency
and emission control [3]. Injection pressure is a significant
parameter in diesel engine combustion, which affects fuel
spray atomization, penetration, droplet size distribution,
and air-fuel mixture. Higher injection pressures tend to pro-
duce smaller fuel droplets, leading to better mixing and
complete combustion. But higher injection pressures can
also lead to higher peak combustion temperature and NOx
emissions. Therefore, it is essential to find an optimal injec-
tion pressure to ensure performance and emission trade-
offs [4]. Besides the injection conditions, the geometry of
the combustion chamber also plays a major role in turbu-
lence intensity and mixture formation. Modern combustion
chamber designs like the Hemispherical Combustion Cham-
ber (HCC) and Toroidal Re-entrant Combustion Chamber
(TRCC) promote swirl and squish processes, thus improving
the efficiency of combustion. The TRCC design, in particu-
lar, is recognized for its ability to create high turbulence lev-
els within the combustion chamber, thus ensuring better
mixing of biodiesel blends with air [5]. Many research stud-
ies have been conducted on alternative fuels for compres-
sion ignition (CI) engines to decrease dependence on fossil
fuels, reduce environmental effects, and meet the stringent
emission norms. Biodiesel, derived from various edible and
non-edible oils, has been extensively researched due to its
renewability, high lubricity, and oxygen content, which
helps to improve combustion efficiency. As per Knothe et
al., biodiesel has a higher cetane number and better com-
bustion properties than conventional diesel fuel, which
leads to a reduction in CO, HC, and particulate matter emis-
sions, but slightly increases NOx emissions because of the
higher combustion temperatures [6]. Various researchers
have also investigated the impact of different blends of bi-
odiesel on engine performance and emissions. For exam-
ple, investigations on B20 blends, which contain 20% bio-
diesel and 80% diesel fuel, have indicated that B20 has
similar brake thermal efficiency (BTE) to diesel fuel and
lower CO and HC emissions because of increased oxygen
availability, but slightly higher NOx emissions because of
earlier combustion timing. However, studies conducted by
Agarwal et al. have indicated that B20 blends have similar
torque and power to diesel fuel, but reduce smoke and un-
burned hydrocarbons [7]. The choice of feedstock is a major
factor in determining biodiesel properties and engine per-
formance. Non-edible oils like Jatropha, Karanja, and Neem
have been explored in depth; however, studies on Garcinia
gummi-gutta biodiesel are relatively rare. Studies by Shan-
kar et al. showed that Garcinia oil biodiesel has desirable
fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) properties, with a suitable
cetane number and oxygen content, resulting in improved
combustion and reduced CO and HC emissions. However,
its higher viscosity and lower calorific value than diesel may
impact atomization and combustion efficiency, requiring
optimization of engine operating conditions like injection
pressure and combustion chamber design [8]. Injection
pressure is a critical parameter in the combustion mecha-
nism of diesel engines. Higher injection pressures result in
increased atomization, reduced droplet size, and improved
spray penetration, resulting in better air-fuel mixing and
combustion efficiency [9]. Observed that an increase in in-
jection pressure led to a decrease in brake specific fuel con-
sumption (BSFC) and an improvement in brake thermal ef-
ficiency (BTE) for biodiesel blends up to a certain optimal
point, beyond which the improvement tended to decrease
[10]. Also, Kannan and Anand observed that an increase in
injection pressure could potentially increase the peak cylin-
der pressure and heat release rate, thus improving combus-
tion but sometimes at the expense of higher NOx emis-
sions. Combustion chamber geometry is also an important
factor in in-cylinder flow and mixture formation. Conven-
tional combustion chambers, such as the Hemispherical
Combustion Chamber (HCC), are known to have good volu-
metric efficiency and fair swirl values. More advanced ge-
ometries, such as the Toroidal Re-entrant Combustion
Chamber (TRCC), have been found to produce higher tur-
bulence levels and to favor rapid air-fuel mixing, leading to
a reduction in ignition delay and improved combustion ef-
ficiency [11]. Research conducted by [12]. show that TRCC
configurations are capable of providing improved combus-
tion stability and lower smoke emissions compared to con-
ventional chamber designs. Although a lot of research work
has been conducted on biodiesel blends, injection pres-
sure, and combustion chamber geometry separately, the
effect of varying injection pressures along with modern
combustion chamber designs on Garcinia gummi-gutta bio-
diesel, specifically B20 blends, has not been well investi-
gated yet. The aim of this research work is to fill this re-
search gap by comprehensively analyzing the performance
and emission behavior of a diesel engine fueled with
B20+HCC and B20+TRCC fueling systems at varying injec-
tion pressures (180-240 bar). The current research work
tends to explore the joint effect of injection pressure varia-
tion and combustion chamber modification on the perfor-
mance characteristics of a CI engine running on Garcinia
gummi-gutta biodiesel (B20 blend). Performance aspects
like brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and brake specific fuel
consumption (BSFC), and emission aspects like CO, HC,
NOx, and smoke opacity are taken into consideration. The
scope of this research work is to identify the optimal injec-
tion pressure and combustion chamber design that ensures
maximum efficiency and minimum emissions, thus increas-
ing the applicability of Garcinia gummi-gutta biodiesel in CI
engines.
2. Garcinia gummi-gutta Biodiesel Oil Preparation
The biodiesel derived from Garcinia gummi-gutta is ob-
tained from the oil extracted from the seeds of Garcinia
gummi-gutta (Malabar tamarind). Ripe fruits are harvested,
and the seeds are separated, washed, and dried in the sun
to evaporate the moisture. The dried seeds are crushed,
and the oil is extracted either by expeller or solvent extrac-
tion using n-hexane. The extracted oil is filtered and heated
to evaporate the remaining moisture. The raw oil has high
viscosity; hence, it is converted to biodiesel through a
transesterification reaction. In this reaction, the raw oil is
heated to 55-60°C and mixed with methanol in the pres-
ence of a catalyst such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or po-
tassium hydroxide (KOH). The mixture is stirred for 60-90
minutes and left to settle, separating into two distinct
456
Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Біоенергетика
layers: biodiesel (top layer) and glycerol (bottom layer). The
biodiesel is separated, washed with warm distilled water to
remove contaminants, and dried to produce clear FAME,
which can be used in diesel engines or blended with con-
ventional diesel fuel (Table 1).
Table 1. Physical Properties of Garcinia gummi-gutta Bio-
diesel
Property Diesel
Garcinia
Biodiesel
(Typical)
Effect on Engine
Density
(kg/m³)
820–
840 870–890
Higher density in-
creases injected
fuel mass
Kinematic
Viscosity
(mm²/s at
40°C)
2–4 4.5–5.8
Higher viscosity
affects atomiza-
tion
Calorific
Value
(MJ/kg)
42–45 36–39
Slightly lower →
higher fuel con-
sumption
Flash Point
(°C) 50–70 150–170 Safer storage and
handling
Cetane
Number 45–50 50–55 Better ignition
quality
Cloud Point
(°C) −5 to 5 8–15 Poor cold flow
properties
Pour Point
(°C)
−15 to
0 5–10 May cause cold-
start issues
3. Experimental setup
The experimental work was conducted on a single-cylin-
der, four-stroke, water-cooled, direct injection diesel en-
gine equipped with an eddy current dynamometer. The
engine was run at a constant speed of 1500 rpm with a
compression ratio of 17.5:1 and a rated power output of
5.2 kW. Biodiesel fuel was prepared from Garcinia gummi-
gutta oil using the transesterification method and mixed
with diesel fuel in a 20:80 proportion (B20). Two types of
combustion chamber designs, namely Hemispherical
Combustion Chamber (HCC) and Toroidal Re-entrant
Combustion Chamber (TRCC), were used by changing the
piston bowl design with the same compression ratio. The
injection timing was set at 23° bTDC, and the injection
pressure was changed at 180, 200 (standard), 220, and
240 bar by adjusting the spring tension of the injector. The
performance aspects of brake thermal efficiency (BTE)
and brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) were deter-
mined using fuel consumption and brake power measure-
ments. The combustion parameters like maximum cylin-
der pressure were measured by a piezoelectric pressure
transducer along with a crank angle encoder. Emission-re-
lated parameters like CO, HC, and NOx were measured by
a five-gas analyzer, and the smoke opacity was measured
by an AVL smoke meter. The test was repeated three
times to get accurate results, and the uncertainty of meas-
urement was maintained within ±2% for performance and
±3% for emission parameters (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Layout of experimental setup
4. Result and Discussions
The use of alternative fuels like biodiesel in diesel engines
causes a loss of efficiency, increased fuel consumption, and
NOx emissions. These problems have been resolved by the
application of different measures so far. In addition, an in-
jection pressure strategy was also applied as the final stage
of the experiment. Injection pressure is also an important
factor in improving engine performance, combustion, and
reducing emissions. It improves fuel spray quality and pro-
motes a high rate of mixing. Larger droplet sizes, lack of
mixing, and low penetration are some of the drawbacks of
lower-pressure fuels used for operation. These problems
are removed by increasing the injection pressure. The rate
457
Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Біоенергетика
of evaporation was increased by reducing the fuel core size
and increasing the penetration rate. From the literature re-
view, different injection pressures of 180 bar, 200 bar, 220
bar, and 240 bar were used with a fixed amount of fuel in-
jected into the engine (Table 2).
Table 2. Annotations for TRCC engine operated with vari-
ous injection pressure
Sl.
No. Annotations Descriptions
1. Diesel 100% Diesel fuel
2. B20 20% Garcinia Gummi-Gutta
(GGG)+80% diesel
3.
B20+HCC 20% Garcinia Gummi-Gutta
(GGG)+80% diesel operated in de-
fault hemispherical combustion
chamber.
4.
B20+TRCC 20% Garcinia Gummi-Gutta
(GGG)+80% diesel operated in
TRCC
5.
B20+TRCC
+180
20% Garcinia Gummi-Gutta
(GGG)+80% diesel operated in
TRCC with 180 bar injection pres-
sure
6.
B20+TRCC
+200
20% Garcinia Gummi-Gutta
(GGG)+80% diesel operated in
TRCC with 200 bar injection pres-
sure
7
B20+TRCC
+220
20% Garcinia Gummi-Gutta
(GGG)+80% diesel operated in
TRCC with 220 bar injection pres-
sure
8
B20+TRCC
+240
20% Garcinia Gummi-Gutta
(GGG)+80% diesel operated in
TRCC with 240 bar injection pres-
sure
4.1 Performance Characteristics
Fig. 2. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with engine
load
The effect of engine brake thermal efficiency with respect
to engine load for diesel and Garcinia gummi-gutta
biodiesel blends under various combustion chamber geom-
etries and injection pressures shows a prominent effect of
both in-cylinder turbulence and fuel atomization quality
(Fig. 2). For all test fuels, BTE increases with load because
of decreased relative heat losses, improved combustion
stability, and better fuel-air interaction at higher cylinder
temperatures [13]. Compared to diesel (32.8% at full load),
B20 has a lower BTE (30.9%) mainly because of its lower
calorific value and slightly higher viscosity, which impacts
spray breakup and evaporation. However, with the inclu-
sion of the hemispherical combustion chamber (HCC), BTE
increases to 31.6%, which indicates better swirl and mixing.
The Toroidal Re-entrant Combustion Chamber (TRCC) at
standard pressure (200 bar) further increases BTE to 33.4%,
which exceeds that of diesel. This is because of increased
turbulence and better squish motion, which hastens com-
bustion [14]. Variation of injection pressure shows that 220
bar gives the maximum BTE of 34.6%. At this pressure, at-
omization is optimal, which gives smaller droplet sizes and
faster evaporation rates, resulting in better premixed com-
bustion. At 180 bar, the lack of atomization leads to a lower
efficiency of 32.1%, and at 240 bar, a slight over-penetra-
tion of the spray and wall impingement could result in a
marginal decrease of 34.2%. Hence, 220 bar is recognized
as the optimal injection pressure [15].
Fig. 3. Variation of BSFC with engine load
Specific fuel consumption reduces with the increase in load
for all test conditions because higher loads enhance the ra-
tio of useful work to fuel energy input (Fig. 3). B20 fuel has
a higher SFEC than diesel fuel because of its lower heating
value and higher density. At full load, the SFEC of diesel fuel
is 0.26 kg/kWh, whereas for B20 fuel, it is 0.29 kg/kWh. The
addition of HCC reduces SFEC to 0.275 kg/kWh. TRCC at
standard pressure further reduces SFEC to 0.268 kg/kWh
because of better in-cylinder mixing. Injection pressure is a
very important factor, and at 220 bar, the lowest SFEC of
0.254 kg/kWh is obtained, thus confirming better combus-
tion efficiency and less fuel wastage. At 180 bar, the fuel is
not fully atomized, resulting in higher fuel consumption,
whereas 240 bar results in a slight increase in SFEC com-
pared to 220 bar, possibly due to increased pumping work
and spray-wall interaction [16].
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Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Біоенергетика
4.2 Combustion Characteristics
Fig. 4. Pressure vs crank angle
Peak cylinder pressure is an important parameter that
shows the intensity of combustion (Fig. 4). Diesel fuel has a
peak pressure of about 68 bar. B20 fuel has a slightly lower
pressure of 67 bar because of its lower energy density. HCC
has a slightly higher pressure due to enhanced turbulence.
TRCC with 200 bar pressure has a 70 bar peak pressure,
which shows more intense premixed combustion. With 220
bar injection pressure, the maximum peak pressure of 72
bar is attained, which is a result of fast heat release and ef-
ficient combustion. With 180 bar pressure, the pressure is
lower because of late combustion, and with 240 bar, there
is a slight decrease in pressure compared to 220 bar [17].
Fig. 5. HRR vs Crank angle
The HRR curve indicates a distinct premixed combustion
peak and diffusion combustion phase. Diesel fuel has a
moderate premixed peak (Fig. 5). B20 fuel has a slightly
lower HRR due to reduced evaporation and mixing rates.
HCC has a marginal increase in premixed combustion. TRCC
has a substantial increase in premixed combustion due to
improved atomization and turbulence. The HRR peak is
highest at 220 bar, indicating lower ignition delay and faster
combustion. At 180 bar, the premixed peak is lower due to
poor spray atomization. At 240 bar, a slight decrease is no-
ticed compared to 220 bar, which indicates that 220 bar is
the optimal injection pressure [18].
4.3 Emission Characteristics
Fig. 6. Variation of HC with engine load
Unburned hydrocarbon emissions are affected by flame
quenching in the vicinity of the cylinder walls, incomplete
combustion, and fuel trapped in crevice volumes (Fig. 6).
Diesel fuel has 54 ppm HC at full load. B20 decreases HC to
48 ppm because of the oxygen content, which enhances ox-
idation. The HCC arrangement further decreases HC (44
ppm), which indicates better flame propagation. TRCC at
200 bar decreases HC to 40 ppm because of increased swirl
and faster combustion. At 220 bar injection pressure, HC
emission is lowest (38 ppm), which indicates better vapori-
zation and lower ignition delay. At 180 bar, spray atomiza-
tion is poor, which increases HC because of incomplete
combustion. At 240 bar, there is a slight increase compared
to 220 bar [19].
Fig. 7. Variation of CO with engine load
CO emissions rise with load due to higher mixture richness
and lower oxygen availability at higher fuel injection rates
459
Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Біоенергетика
(Fig. 7). Diesel fuel has the highest CO emission (0.42% at
full load) because of incomplete combustion in locally rich
regions. B20 fuel lowers CO emission (0.38%) because of its
oxygenated molecular composition, which favors complete
combustion. HCC lowers CO emissions slightly (0.34%) be-
cause of better air-fuel mixing. TRCC arrangement lowers
CO emissions substantially (0.30%) at standard pressure be-
cause of increased turbulence and oxidation rates. The low-
est CO emission (0.24%) is at 220 bar because of higher
spray atomization and faster mixing, which favor complete
combustion of carbon species. At 180 bar, lower atomiza-
tion raises CO emissions, while 240 bar is slightly higher
than 220 bar [20].
Fig. 8. Oxides of Nitrogen vs engine load
NOx formation is highly sensitive to peak combustion tem-
perature, oxygen concentration, and residence time at high
temperatures (Fig. 8). Diesel fuel emits 842 ppm NOx at full
load conditions. B20 fuel has a slightly higher NOx emission
(880 ppm) because of higher oxygen concentration and
more advanced combustion phasing. HCC has a moderate
NOx increase because of improved combustion efficiency.
TRCC further raises NOx emission (890 ppm at 200 bar) be-
cause of higher turbulence intensity and peak temperature.
The maximum NOx emission (910 ppm) occurs at 220 bar
injection pressure, which corresponds to the maximum
peak cylinder pressure and maximum heat release rate. Alt-
hough 240 bar injection pressure has a slightly lower NOx
emission than 220 bar, it is still higher than the standard
pressure because of higher combustion temperatures [21].
Smoke generation is primarily linked with the formation of
soot in fuel-rich regions (Fig. 9). Diesel fuel generates the
highest level of smoke opacity (58 HSU at full load). B20 re-
duces smoke (52 HSU) due to oxygenated fuel, which pro-
motes soot oxidation. HCC reduces smoke (47 HSU) due to
enhanced swirl. TRCC reduces smoke substantially (42 HSU
at 200 bar) due to increased air-fuel mixing. The lowest
level of smoke opacity (44 HSU) is obtained at 220 bar in-
jection pressure, which verifies better atomization and soot
oxidation. At 180 bar, the effect of a larger droplet size is to
increase soot formation, whereas at 240 bar it is slightly
higher than that at 220 bar.
Fig. 9. Variation of Smoke with engine load
Conclusion
The current research work was aimed at investigating the
effects of injection pressure and combustion chamber ge-
ometry on the performance, emissions, and combustion
properties of a single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine
running on B20 biodiesel produced from Garcinia gummi-
gutta. The experimental analysis was conducted on diesel,
B20, B20 with Hemispherical Combustion Chamber (HCC),
and B20 with Toroidal Re-entrant Combustion Chamber
(TRCC) at different injection pressures (180, 200, 220, and
240 bar). The findings of this study clearly show that B20
biodiesel can be used successfully in a diesel engine with a
slight reduction in efficiency compared to diesel. But
changes in combustion chamber geometry have a remark-
able effect on performance. The TRCC design at standard
injection pressure (200 bar) increased brake thermal effi-
ciency (33.4%) compared to diesel (32.8%) and B20
(30.9%), which emphasizes the need for improved turbu-
lence and air-fuel mixing inside the combustion chamber.
The effect of injection pressure on engine performance is
significant. Among the four different injection pressures
(180, 200, 220, and 240 bar) tested, 220 bar was found to
be the best. At this pressure, the maximum brake thermal
efficiency (34.6%) and lowest specific fuel consumption
(0.254 kg/kWh) were obtained. In addition, a remarkable
reduction in CO (0.24%), HC (38 ppm), and smoke opacity
(44 HSU) was also found because of better atomization and
fast combustion. Nevertheless, a slight increase in NOx
emissions (910 ppm) was found at higher injection pres-
sures because of higher peak combustion temperature.
Moreover, combustion analysis also revealed that the max-
imum peak cylinder pressure (72 bar) and maximum heat
release rate were achieved at 220 bar injection pressure,
indicating better premixed combustion and shorter ignition
delay. At lower injection pressure (180 bar), poor atomiza-
tion resulted in lower efficiency and higher emissions,
whereas at 240 bar, slight degradation was found because
of possible spray over-penetration. Therefore, the optimal
result, balancing performance enhancement and emission
control, was achieved by the combination of TRCC
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Відновлювана енергетика. № 2/2026 | Біоенергетика
combustion chamber and 220 bar injection pressure. The
results have confirmed that Garcinia gummi-gutta biodiesel
(B20) is a technically feasible and sustainable alternative
fuel for compression ignition engines if optimized combus-
tion chamber geometry and injection conditions are used.
Further research work can be conducted using higher
blends of biodiesel and long-term engine tests. The injec-
tion timing and pressure can be optimized to enhance per-
formance and minimize emissions. Methods such as EGR
can be employed to manage NOx emissions. With appropri-
ate modifications, Garcinia gummi-gutta biodiesel can be
utilized efficiently in diesel engines.
Ethical Approval
Not applicable
Consent to Participate
Not applicable
Consent to Publish
Not applicable
Data Availability Statement
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data
were created or analysed in this research work
Funding
The authors declare that they have no funding for the work
reported in this paper.
Competing Interest
There are no conflicts of interest, according to the authors.
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|
| id | veorgua-article-646 |
| institution | Vidnovluvana energetika |
| keywords_txt_mv | keywords |
| language | English |
| last_indexed | 2026-07-10T01:01:06Z |
| publishDate | 2026 |
| publisher | Institute of Renewable Energy National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine |
| record_format | ojs |
| resource_txt_mv | veorgua/a4/72c180ce4035df3298e03f8e98b8b9a4.pdf |
| spelling | veorgua-article-6462026-07-09T12:14:07Z AN IMPACT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH GARCINIA GUMMI-GUTTA BIODIESEL ВПЛИВ ТИСКУ ВПОРСКУВАННЯ НА РОБОЧІ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ ДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ДВИГУНА, ЩО ПРАЦЮЄ НА БІОДИЗЕЛІ З ГАРЦИНІЇ ГУММІ-ГУТТА Sekharraj, K. Balu, P. Subramanian , M. Vasanthkumar, P. Didkivska , G. Diesel engine, Garcinia Gummi-Gutta, High-pressure injection, Performance, Emissions, combustion. дизельний двигун, гарцинія гуммі-гутта, високий тиск впорскування, робочі характеристики, викиди, згоряння. The current study assesses the effect of injection pressure on the performance of a single-cylinder direct injection diesel engine running on biodiesel extracted from Garcinia gummi-gutta. The experiments were carried out on diesel, B20 (20% biodiesel and 80% diesel), B20 with Hemispherical Combustion Chamber (HCC), and B20 with Toroidal Re-entrant Combustion Chamber (TRCC) at standard injection pressure of 200 bar. At full load, the brake thermal efficiency (BTE) of diesel was found to be 32.8%, whereas that of B20 was 30.9%. The use of HCC increased BTE to 31.6%, whereas B20+TRCC at standard pressure increased BTE to 33.4%, which is a clear indication of better air-fuel mixing and turbulence. Further change in injection pressure for TRCC configuration showed that at 180 bar, BTE was 32.1% with brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of 0.282 kg/kWh; at 200 bar, BTE increased to 33.4% with 0.268 kg/kWh; at 220 bar, maximum efficiency was attained with 34.6% BTE and 0.254 kg/kWh; and at 240 bar, BTE slightly dropped to 34.2% with 0.259 kg/kWh. Analysis of the emission revealed that CO emission reduced from 0.42% (diesel) and 0.38% (B20) to 0.24% at 220 bar, while HC emission reduced from 54 ppm to 38 ppm and smoke opacity reduced from 58 HSU to 44 HSU. But NOx emission increased from 842 ppm (diesel) to 910 ppm at 220 bar due to increased peak temperatures. Maximum cylinder pressure also increased from 67 bar (B20 standard) to 72 bar at 220 bar injection pressure. Thus, the B20+TRCC combination at 220 bar had the optimal trade-off between efficiency enhancement and emission control, thereby establishing the suitability of Garcinia gummi-gutta biodiesel in compression ignition engines.  У цьому дослідженні оцінюється вплив тиску впорскування на робочі характеристики одноциліндрового дизельного двигуна з безпосереднім впорскуванням, що працює на біодизелі, отриманому з гарцинії гуммі-гутта. Експерименти проводили з використанням дизельного палива, суміші B20 (20% біодизеля та 80% дизельного палива), суміші B20 у двигуні з напівсферичною камерою згоряння (HCC) та суміші B20 у двигуні з тороїдальною камерою згоряння з повторним входом (TRCC) за стандартного тиску впорскування 200 бар. За повного навантаження ефективний термічний ККД (BTE) дизельного палива становив 32,8%, суміші B20 — 30,9%. При застосуванні двигуна з напівсферичною камерою згоряння показник BTE підвищився до 31,6%, в експерименті із застосуванням B20+TRCC за стандартного тиску показник BTE зріс до 33,4%, що свідчить про краще змішування паливно-повітряної суміші та підвищення турбулентності. При подальшій зміні тиску упорскування у експериментах із двигуном з тороїдальною камерою згоряння за тиску 180 бар ККД становив 32,1% за питомої ефективної витрати палива (BSFC) 0,282 кг/кВт·год; при 200 бар ККД зріс до 33,4% при BSFC на рівні 0,268 кг/кВт·год; при 220 бар було досягнуто максимальної ефективності — ККД дорівнював 34,6%, BSFC — 0,254 кг/кВт·год, відповідно; тоді як при 240 бар ККД дещо зменшився до 34,2% при BSFC на рівні 0,259 кг/кВт·год. За результатами аналізу викидів, обсяги викидів CO зменшилися з 0,42% (у експериментах із дизельним паливом) та 0,38% (B20) до 0,24% при тиску 220 бар, тоді як обсяг викидів незгорілих вуглеводнів зменшився з 54 ppm до 38 ppm, а димність знизилася з 58 HSU до 44 HSU. Втім, обсяг викидів оксидів азоту зріс з 842 ppm (дизельне паливо) до 910 ppm при 220 бар унаслідок підвищення пікових температур. Максимальний тиск у циліндрі також зріс з 67 бар (B20 за стандартних умов) до 72 бар при тиску впорскування 220 бар. Таким чином, в експерименті з комбінацією B20+TRCC при тиску 220 бар забезпечується оптимальний баланс між підвищенням ефективності та контролем викидів, що підтверджує придатність біодизеля з гарцинії гуммі-гутта до використання в двигунах із запалюванням від стиснення.  Institute of Renewable Energy National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine 2026-06-30 Article Article application/pdf https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/646 10.36296/1819-8058.2026.2(85).453-461 Vidnovluvana energetika ; No. 2(85) (2026): Scientific and applied Journal renewable energy ; 453-461 Возобновляемая энергетика; № 2(85) (2026): Scientific and applied Journal renewable energy ; 453-461 Відновлювана енергетика; № 2(85) (2026): Науково-прикладний журнал Відновлювана енергетика; 453-461 2664-8172 1819-8058 10.36296/1819-8058.2026.2(85) en https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/646/555 Copyright (c) 2026 Vidnovluvana energetika |
| spellingShingle | Diesel engine Garcinia Gummi-Gutta High-pressure injection Performance Emissions combustion. Sekharraj, K. Balu, P. Subramanian , M. Vasanthkumar, P. Didkivska , G. AN IMPACT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH GARCINIA GUMMI-GUTTA BIODIESEL |
| title | AN IMPACT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH GARCINIA GUMMI-GUTTA BIODIESEL |
| title_alt | ВПЛИВ ТИСКУ ВПОРСКУВАННЯ НА РОБОЧІ ХАРАКТЕРИСТИКИ ДИЗЕЛЬНОГО ДВИГУНА, ЩО ПРАЦЮЄ НА БІОДИЗЕЛІ З ГАРЦИНІЇ ГУММІ-ГУТТА |
| title_full | AN IMPACT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH GARCINIA GUMMI-GUTTA BIODIESEL |
| title_fullStr | AN IMPACT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH GARCINIA GUMMI-GUTTA BIODIESEL |
| title_full_unstemmed | AN IMPACT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH GARCINIA GUMMI-GUTTA BIODIESEL |
| title_short | AN IMPACT OF INJECTION PRESSURE ON OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIESEL ENGINE FUELED WITH GARCINIA GUMMI-GUTTA BIODIESEL |
| title_sort | impact of injection pressure on operating characteristics of a diesel engine fueled with garcinia gummi-gutta biodiesel |
| topic | Diesel engine Garcinia Gummi-Gutta High-pressure injection Performance Emissions combustion. |
| topic_facet | Diesel engine Garcinia Gummi-Gutta High-pressure injection Performance Emissions combustion. дизельний двигун гарцинія гуммі-гутта високий тиск впорскування робочі характеристики викиди згоряння. |
| url | https://ve.org.ua/index.php/journal/article/view/646 |
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