Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization
We consider a possibility to unify the methods of regularization, such as the renormalization group method, stochastic quantization etc., by the extension of the standard field theory of the square-integrable functions φ(b) ∊ L²(Rd) to the theory of functions that depend on coordinate b and resoluti...
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nasplib_isofts_kiev_ua-123456789-1461802025-02-23T17:17:50Z Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization Altaisky, M.V. We consider a possibility to unify the methods of regularization, such as the renormalization group method, stochastic quantization etc., by the extension of the standard field theory of the square-integrable functions φ(b) ∊ L²(Rd) to the theory of functions that depend on coordinate b and resolution a. In the simplest case such field theory turns out to be a theory of fields φa(b,·) defined on the affine group G: x′ = ax+b, a > 0, x, b ∊ Rd, which consists of dilations and translation of Euclidean space. The fields φa(b,·) are constructed using the continuous wavelet transform. The parameters of the theory can explicitly depend on the resolution a. The proper choice of the scale dependence g = g(a) makes such theory free of divergences by construction The author is thankful to the referee for useful comments and references. 2006 Article Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization / M.V. Altaisky // Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications. — 2006. — Т. 2. — Бібліогр.: 27 назв. — англ. 1815-0659 2000 Mathematics Subject Classification: 37E20; 42C40; 81T16; 81T17 https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/146180 en Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications application/pdf Інститут математики НАН України |
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We consider a possibility to unify the methods of regularization, such as the renormalization group method, stochastic quantization etc., by the extension of the standard field theory of the square-integrable functions φ(b) ∊ L²(Rd) to the theory of functions that depend on coordinate b and resolution a. In the simplest case such field theory turns out to be a theory of fields φa(b,·) defined on the affine group G: x′ = ax+b, a > 0, x, b ∊ Rd, which consists of dilations and translation of Euclidean space. The fields φa(b,·) are constructed using the continuous wavelet transform. The parameters of the theory can explicitly depend on the resolution a. The proper choice of the scale dependence g = g(a) makes such theory free of divergences by construction |
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Altaisky, M.V. |
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Altaisky, M.V. Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications |
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Altaisky, M.V. |
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Altaisky, M.V. |
| title |
Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization |
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Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization |
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Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization |
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Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization |
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Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization |
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scale-dependent functions, stochastic quantization and renormalization |
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Інститут математики НАН України |
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2006 |
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https://nasplib.isofts.kiev.ua/handle/123456789/146180 |
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Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization / M.V. Altaisky // Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications. — 2006. — Т. 2. — Бібліогр.: 27 назв. — англ. |
| series |
Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications |
| work_keys_str_mv |
AT altaiskymv scaledependentfunctionsstochasticquantizationandrenormalization |
| first_indexed |
2025-11-24T02:39:12Z |
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2025-11-24T02:39:12Z |
| _version_ |
1849637682294030336 |
| fulltext |
Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications Vol. 2 (2006), Paper 046, 17 pages
Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization
and Renormalization
Mikhail V. ALTAISKY †‡
† Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Dubna, 141980 Russia
URL: http://lrb.jinr.ru/people/altaisky/MVAltaiskyE.html
‡ Space Research Institute RAS, Profsoyuznaya 84/32, Moscow, 117997 Russia
E-mail: altaisky@mx.iki.rssi.ru
Received November 25, 2005, in final form April 07, 2006; Published online April 24, 2006
Original article is available at http://www.emis.de/journals/SIGMA/2006/Paper046/
Abstract. We consider a possibility to unify the methods of regularization, such as the
renormalization group method, stochastic quantization etc., by the extension of the standard
field theory of the square-integrable functions φ(b) ∈ L2(Rd) to the theory of functions that
depend on coordinate b and resolution a. In the simplest case such field theory turns out
to be a theory of fields φa(b, ·) defined on the affine group G : x′ = ax + b, a > 0, x, b ∈
Rd, which consists of dilations and translation of Euclidean space. The fields φa(b, ·) are
constructed using the continuous wavelet transform. The parameters of the theory can
explicitly depend on the resolution a. The proper choice of the scale dependence g = g(a)
makes such theory free of divergences by construction.
Key words: wavelets; quantum field theory; stochastic quantization; renormalization
2000 Mathematics Subject Classification: 37E20; 42C40; 81T16; 81T17
1 Introduction
In many problems of field theoretic description of infinite-dimensional systems the continuous
description of fields and propagators faces the problem of infinities in loop integrals. The
underlying physics is that field theoretic description includes integration over all microscopic
scales smaller than the size of the system. In the simplest case small-scale fluctuations can be
just averaged to get the classical equations for macroscopic fields. The best known example
is the laminar flow hydrodynamics. In more complicated cases interaction strength (and even
type) may depend on the scale. The examples are: turbulent fluid flow, critical phenomena,
elementary particles interaction, etc.
For this reason we need a measure of integration that works better than Euclidean integration
does. For some cases such measures are observed experimentally: these are fractal measure of
energy dissipation in turbulent field [1, 2], fractal mass distribution of percolation clusters, etc.
For high energies, when the fractal distribution of the field or order parameter can not be
measured experimentally due to the uncertainty principle, the search for a better measure of
integration remains a mathematical problem. Fortunately, all these phenomena share a common
important feature – the self-similarity, or scaling. The percolation processes in nanoelectronics,
the turbulent velocity field, and the nucleon scattering – all display the same picture if being
observed at different scales. The self-similarity has initiated at least two important regularization
methods for field theory models:
• The renormalization group (RG) method that makes use of substitution of initial fields
http://lrb.jinr.ru/people/altaisky/MVAltaiskyE.html
mailto:altaisky@mx.iki.rssi.ru
http://www.emis.de/journals/SIGMA/2006/Paper046/
2 M.V. Altaisky
φ(x) ∈ L2(Rd) by the scale-truncated fields
φ( 2π
Λ )(x) =
∫
|k|≤Λ
e−ıkxφ̃(k)
ddk
(2π)d
, (1)
makes the coupling constants dependent on the cut-off momentum Λ, and requires that
the final physical results should be independent of the introduced scale
Λ∂Λ(Physical quantities) = 0.
• Use of random processes that are self-similar by construction for the regularization of
quantum field theory (QFT) models. This is known as stochastic quantization.
In present paper we summarize the both methods by introducing the fields φa(b) that expli-
citly depend on both position b and the scale (resolution) a. If φ(x) is considered as the wave
function of a quantum particle, then the normalization
∫
|φa(b)|2dµ(a, b) = 1, where dµ(a, b)
is the appropriate Haar measure on affine group, expresses the fact that the probability of
locating the particle anywhere in space −∞ < b < ∞ changing the resolution 0 < a < ∞ is
exactly one. Thus, the RG symmetry related to the change of the scale a extends the symmetry
of the theory by allowing the change of parameters with scale. Technically, construction of the
scale-dependent fields φa(b) is performed by using continuous wavelet transform (CWT).
It should be noted that since field theoretic calculations are usually performed with the help
of the Fourier transform the cut-off momentum Λ corresponds to the minimal coordinate scale
L = 2π
Λ . However, the Fourier transform is not localized in coordinate space. For this reason we
denote the fields obtained from φ(x) by truncation of the Fourier harmonics with |k| > 2π
L (1)
as φ(L)(x); in contrast to it the localized view of a function φ at the position x and the scale
a is denoted as φa(x). The mathematical meaning of the latter will be explained hereafter in
terms of wavelet transform. The same thing concerns the parameters of field theory models –
masses, coupling constants, etc. In the standard approach they are dependent on the cut-off
momentum and it is tacitly understood that the experimental dependence of these parameters
on the squared transferred momentum Q2 is equivalent to the dependence on the cut-off. In
our wavelet-based approach the g = g(a) may be the coupling constant of the given field φa(b)
of the given scale a, rather than the effective coupling constant for the harmonics of all scales
up to a. For this reason different notations are used hereafter in the Fourier and the wavelet
representations of field theories.
2 Wavelets and scale-dependent functions
2.1 What is wavelet transform
Wavelet transform entered mathematical physics from geophysical applications [3, 4] as a prefe-
rable alternative to the Fourier transform in the case when localization in both position and mo-
mentum is simultaneously required. Formally the Fourier transform and the wavelet transform
are on the same footing: both are decomposition of a function with respect to the representa-
tions of a Lie group. However, the former uses Abelian group of translations, the latter uses
non-Abelian group of affine transformations
x′ = aR(θ)x+ b, R(θ) ∈ SOd, x, x′, b ∈ Rd.
Let us remind the general formalism. For a locally compact Lie groupG acting transitively on the
Hilbert space H it is possible to decompose vectors φ ∈ H with respect to the square-integrable
representations U(g) of the group G [5, 6]:
|φ〉 = C−1
ψ
∫
g∈G
|U(g)ψ〉dµ(g)〈ψU∗(g)|φ〉, (2)
Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization 3
where dµ(g) is the left-invariant Haar measure on G. The normalization constant Cψ is deter-
mined by the norm of the action of U(g) on the fiducial vector ψ ∈ H, i.e. any ψ ∈ H that
satisfies the admissibility condition
Cψ = ‖ψ‖−2
∫
g∈G
|〈ψ|U(g)ψ〉|2dµ(g) <∞,
can be used as a basis of wavelet decomposition (2).
Hereafter we assume the basic wavelet ψ is invariant under SOd rotations ψ(x) = ψ(|x|) and
drop the angular part of the measure for simplicity (R(θ) ≡ 1). After this simplifying assump-
tion, the left-invariant Haar measure on affine group is dµ(a, b) = daddb
ad+1 . The representation
U(g) induced by a basic wavelet ψ(x) is
g : x′ = ax + b, U(g)ψ(x) = a−d/2ψ
(
x− b
a
)
. (3)
Therefore, in the Hilbert space of square-integrable functions L2(Rd), with the scalar product
(f, g) :=
∫
f̄(x)g(x)dx, a function φ ∈ L2(Rd) can be decomposed with respect to the represen-
tations of affine group (3):
φ(x) = C−1
ψ
∫
a−d/2ψ
(
x− b
a
)
φa(b)
daddb
ad+1
. (4)
The coefficients of this decomposition are
φa(b) =
∫
a−d/2ψ̄
(
x− b
a
)
φ(x)ddx. (5)
The d-dimensional bold vector notations are dropped hereafter where it does not lead to a con-
fusion, and the basic wavelet ψ(x) is assumed to be isotropic. Here we use normalization for the
rotationally invariant wavelets
Cψ =
∫
|ψ̃(k)|2
Sd|k|d
ddk,
where the area of the unit sphere in d dimensions Sd has come from rotation symmetry.
2.2 Scale-dependent functions
Up to this point we considered only a projection of a φ ∈ L2(Rd) functions onto the basis con-
structed of shifts and dilations of the basic wavelet ψ(x). If we substitute the inverse wavelet
transform (4) into any physical theory we have started with we will reproduce it identically.
However, the wavelet coefficients φa(b) may have their own physical meaning. The convolu-
tion (5) can be considered as a “microscope” that scrutinizes a field or a signal φ(x) at a point b
at different resolutions. In this sense the function ψ can be considered as an apparatus function
of the measuring device.
The most known case of such theory is the measurement of the turbulent velocity field: the
mean velocity and the PDF of fluctuations of different scales should not be the same [1, 7].
Experimentally averaging of the field in a physical volume Ld is usually described as
vL = L−d
∫
Ld
K(x− y)v(y)ddy,
where K is some averaging kernel. But the “no-scale” field v(y) may not exist at all: consider
a mean velocity of fluctuations at a scale L less than a mean free path of the particle.
4 M.V. Altaisky
That is why the wavelet coefficients φa(b) may have their own operational meaning, even if
the “no-scale” function φ(x) does not exist. In this case a sum of all fluctuations with scales
equal or greater than a given scale L can be defined [8]:
φ(L)(x) =
2
Cψ
∫ ∞
L
a−d/2ψ
(
x− b
a
)
φa(b)
daddb
ad+1
.
This is a close analogy to the Wilson’s RG approach to critical phenomena [9, 10, 11], where
a magnetization (or velocity, or other order parameter) of scale L is taken in the form (1).
2.3 Wavelets and random processes
If a function to be analyzed by continuous wavelet is a random function, its wavelet transform
is also a random function. So, instead of the usual space of the random functions f(x, ·) ∈
(Ω,A, P ), where f(x, ω) ∈ L2(Rd) for each given realization ω of the random process, we can go
to the multiscale representation provided by the continuous wavelet transform (5):
Wψ(a, b, ·) =
∫
|a|−
d
2ψ
(
x− b
a
)
f(x, ·)ddx.
The inverse wavelet transform
f(x, ·) = C−1
ψ
∫
|a|−
d
2ψ
(
x− b
a
)
Wψ(a, b, ·)dadb
ad+1
reconstructs the common random process as a sum of its scale components, i.e. projections onto
different resolution spaces.
The use of the scale components instead of the original stochastic process provides extra
analytical flexibility of the method: there exist more than one set of random functions W (a, b, ·)
the images of which have coinciding correlation functions in the space of f(x, ·). It is easy to
check that the random process generated by wavelet coefficients having in (a, k) space the
correlation function
〈W̃ (a1, k1)W̃ (a2, k2)〉 = Cψ(2π)dδd(k1 + k2)ad+1
1 δ(a1 − a2)D0
has the same correlation function as white noise has:
〈f(x1)f(x2)〉 = D0δ
d(x1 − x2),
〈f̃(k1)f̃(k2)〉 = (2π)dD0δ
d(k1 + k2),
〈W̃ψ(a1, k1)W̃ψ(a2, k2)〉 = (2π)dD0δ
d(k1 + k2)(a1a2)d/2ψ̃(a1k1)ψ̃(a2k2).
Therefore, the space of scale-dependent random functions is just richer than the ordinary space
of random functions: since we have an extra scale argument a here, we can play with the PDF
and correlations of random functions φa(b, ·) to achieve required properties in ordinary space,
holding at the same time some other limitations, say, on singular behavior.
3 Stochastic quantization
3.1 Parisi–Wu stochastic quantization
Quantum field theory, as is understood in technical sense, is a tool to calculate vacuum ex-
pectation values (v.e.v.) of the field operator products 〈φ(x1) . . . φ(xn)〉 – the Green functions.
Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization 5
Usually it is done in the functional integral formalism: if the action of the field φ S[φ] is known,
the v.e.v. can be derived by taking functional derivatives of the generating functional
W [J(x)] =
∫
DφeıS[φ]+ı
∫
J(x)φ(x)dx (6)
with respect to the formal source J(x). Unfortunately, infinite perturbation series obtained by
such differentiation often give infinite results and require regularization.
However, there are alternatives to this method. Since any quantum system interacts with
environment, it can not be in a pure state, and averaging over all field configurations should be
performed taking into account averaging over the states of environment. This can be done by
considering the system environment as a thermostat, described by a Gaussian random noise; the
desired v.e.v. state will be a result of relaxation to the thermodynamic limit. Thus, instead of
the Feynman path integral (6), one can operate with stochastic differential equations. Because
of equivalence between Euclidean QFT and the stochastic problems, the stochastic methods
have found wide applications in both numeric and analytic solution of QFT problems, especially
in regularization. Among those, the method of stochastic quantization of gauge fields, proposed
by G. Parisi and Y. Wu [12], have been attracting attention for more than 20 years. The idea of
the method is as follows. Let SE [φ] be the action Euclidean field theory in Rd. Instead of direct
calculation of the Green functions from the generation functional of the field theory, it is possible
to introduce a fictitious time τ , make the quantum fields into stochastic fields φ(x) → φ(x, τ),
x ∈ Rd, τ ∈ R and evaluate the moments 〈φ(x1, τ1) . . . φ(xm, τm)〉 by averaging over a random
process φ(x, τ, ·) governed by the Langevin equation
∂φ(x, τ)
∂τ
+
δS
δφ(x, τ)
= η(x, τ). (7)
The Gaussian random force is δ-correlated in both the Rd coordinate and the fictitious time τ :
〈η(x, τ)η(x′, τ ′)〉 = 2D0δ(x− x′)δ(τ − τ ′), 〈η(x, τ)〉 = 0. (8)
The physical Green functions are obtained by taking the steady state limit:
G(x1, . . . , xm) = lim
τ→∞
〈φ(x1, τ) . . . φ(xm, τ)〉.
The stochastic quantization method is much preferable to ordinary methods for it does not
have problems with gauge fixing and does not require incorporation of higher derivatives as
continuous regularization methods do.
Concerning the renormalization of stochastically quantized theory, the matter practically
comes out to the renormalization of the Langevin equation (7) in (d + 1) dimensions instead
of renormalization of the original theory with the action functional S[φ] in d dimensions. The
renormalization of the Langevin equation is usually done by constructing the characteristic
functional
Z[J ] =
〈
exp
(∫
ddxdτJ(x, τ)φ(x, τ)
)〉
solutions
,
where the statistical averaging 〈· · ·〉 is taken over all solutions of the Langevin equation (7).
The summation over all solutions in functional integral formalism is achieved by expressing the
functional δ-function as a functional integral over an imaginary auxiliary field φ̂:
δ
(
∂φ(x, τ)
∂τ
+
δS
δφ(x, τ)
− η(x, τ)
)
∼
∫
Dφ̂ exp φ̂
(
∂φ(x, τ)
∂τ
+
δS
δφ(x, τ)
− η(x, τ)
)
. (9)
6 M.V. Altaisky
This is so-called Martin–Siggia–Rose field-doubling formalism [13]. The resulting theory has the
form of a field theory with constraints in (d + 1) dimensions. Under the change of the cut-off
scale all fields, coordinates and parameters in such a theory are transformed according to their
canonical dimensions.
The renormalization of such a theory has much in common with the renormalization of gauge
theories: for the constraint (9) is similar to gauge fixing, and the functional determinant arising
from the this term under the change of variables results in ghost fields and BRST symmetry.
The details of renormalization of stochastically quantized theories can be found e.g. in [14, 15].
3.2 Wavelet-based stochastic quantization
Taking into account the above mentioned flexibility of stochastic processes defined in the space
of wavelet coefficients, it appears to be attractive to use wavelet-defined noise for stochastic
quantization. Applying the wavelet transform (in spatial coordinates, but not in fictitious time)
φa(b, ·) =
∫
a−dψ
(
x− b
a
)
φ(x, ·)ddx
to the fields and the random force in the Langevin equation (7), we get the possibility to change
the white noise (8) into a scale-dependent random force
〈η̃a1(k1, τ1)η̃a2(k2, τ2)〉 = Cψ(2π)dδd(k1 + k2)δ(τ1 − τ2)a1δ(a1 − a2)D(a1, k1). (10)
(Here and after we use CWT in L1 norm instead of L2.)
In the case when the spectral density of the random force is a constant D(a1, k1) = D0, the
inverse wavelet transform
φ(x) =
2
Cψ
∫ ∞
0
da
a
∫
ddk
(2π)d
dω
2π
exp(ı(kx− ωτ))ψ̃(ak)φa(k, ω) (11)
drives the process (10) into the white noise (8).
In the case of arbitrary functions φa(x, ·) we have more possibilities. In particular, we can
define a narrow band forcing that acts at a single scale
D(a, k) = a0δ(a− a0)D0. (12)
The contribution of the scales with the wave vectors apart from the the typical scale a−1
0 is
suppressed by rapidly vanishing wings of the compactly supported wavelet ψ̃(k).
Here we present two examples of the divergence free stochastic perturbation expansion: (i) the
scalar field theory φ3, (ii) the non-Abelian gauge field theory.
3.3 Scalar field theory
Let us turn to the stochastic quantization of the φ3-theory with the scale-dependent noise [16].
The Euclidean action of the φ3-theory is:
SE [φ(x)] =
∫
ddx
[
1
2
(∂φ)2 +
m2
2
φ2 +
λ
3!
φ3
]
.
The corresponding Langevin equation is written as
∂φ(x, τ)
∂τ
+
(
−∆φ+m2φ+
λ
2!
φ2
)
= η(x, τ). (13)
Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization 7
Substituting the scale components in representation (11) into the Langevin equation (13) we get
the integral equation for the stochastic fields:
(−ıω + k2 +m2)φa(k, ω) = ηa(k, ω)− λ
2
ψ̃(ak)
(
2
Cψ
)2 ∫ ddk1
(2π)d
dω1
2π
da1
a1
da2
a2
,
ψ̃(a1k1)ψ̃(a2(k − k1))φa1(k1, ω1)φa2(k − k1, ω − ω1). (14)
Starting from the zero-th order approximation φ0 = G0η, with the bare Green functionG0(k, ω) =
1/(−ıω + k2 +m2), and iterating the integral equation (14), we get the one-loop correction to
the stochastic Green function:
G(k, ω) = G0(k, ω)
+ λ2G2
0(k, ω)
∫
ddq
(2π)d
dΩ
2π
2∆(q)|G0(q,Ω)|2G0(k − q, ω − Ω) + · · · , (15)
where ∆(k) is the scale-averaged effective force correlator
∆(k) ≡ 2
Cψ
∫ ∞
0
da
a
|ψ̃(ak)|2D(a, k).
In the same way other stochastic moments are evaluated. Thus, the common stochastic diagram
technique is reproduced, but with the scale-dependent random force (10) instead of the standard
one (8). The diagrams corresponding to the stochastic Green function decomposition (15) are
shown in Fig. 1.
= + + ...
K K K K
Q
Figure 1. Diagram expansion of the stochastic Green function in φ3-model.
It can be seen that for a single-band forcing (12) and a suitably chosen wavelet the loop
divergences are suppressed. For instance, use of the Mexican hat wavelet
ψ̃(k) = (2π)d/2(−ık)2 exp(−k2/2), Cψ = (2π)d,
and the single-band random force (12) gives the effective force correlator
∆(q) = (a0q)4e−(a0q)2D0. (16)
The loop integrals, taken with this effective force (16), can be easily seen to be free of ultraviolet
divergences at q →∞:
G2(k, ω) = G2
0(k, ω)
∫
ddq
(2π)d
2∆(q)
∫ ∞
−∞
dΩ
2π
1
Ω2 + (q2 +m2)2
1
−ı(ω − Ω) + (k − q)2 +m2
.
3.4 Non-Abelian gauge theory
The Euclidean action of a non-Abelian gauge field is given by
S[A] =
1
4
∫
ddxF aµν(x)F
a
µν(x),
F aµν(x) = ∂µA
a
ν(x)− ∂νA
a
µ(x) + gfabcAbµ(x)A
c
ν(x), (17)
8 M.V. Altaisky
where fabs are the structure constants of the gauge group, g is the coupling constant. The
Langevin equation for the stochastic quantization of gauge theory (17) can be written as
∂Aaµ(x, τ)
∂τ
+
(
−δµν∂2 + ∂µ∂ν
)
Aaν(x, τ) = ηaµ(x, τ) + Uaµ(x, τ), (18)
where ηaµ(x, τ) is the random force and Uaµ(x, τ) is the nonlinear interaction term
U [A] =
g
2
V 0(A,A) +
g2
6
W 0(A,A,A).
The two terms standing in the free field Green function correspond to the transversal and the
longtitudal mode propagation:
Gabµν(k) =
Tµν(k)δab
−ıω + k2
+
Lµν(k)δab
−ıω
, Tµν(k) = δµν −
kµkν
k2
, Lµν(k) =
kµkν
k2
.
Similarly to the scalar field theory, we can use the scale-dependent forcing (19) in the
Langevin equation (18). Since there is no dynamic evolution for the longtitudal modes in the
Langevin equation (18), it is natural to use the transversal scale-dependent random force
〈ηaa1µ(k1, τ1)ηbνa2
(k2, τ2)〉 = (2π)dδd(k1+ k2)δ(τ1− τ2)Tµν(k1)Cψa1δ(a1− a2)D(a1, k1). (19)
Let us consider a gluon loop with two cubic vertices. Summing up over the gauge group indices(
ı
2g
)2
fabcδbdf
derδcr = g2
4 δaeC2, with C2 = N for SUN gauge groups, we can write the gluon
loop as a sum of two diagrams – those with the transversal and the longtitudal stochastic Green
functions:
Gab2µν(k, ω) = g2δabC2|G0(k, ω)|2
∑
I=T,L
∫
dΩ
2π
ddq
(2π)d
N I(k, ω, q,Ω)lIµν(k, q)2∆(q),
where
N(k, q) =
∣∣∣∣ 1
−ıΩ + q2
∣∣∣∣2
(
1
−ı(ω−Ω)+(k−q)2
1
−ı(ω−Ω)
)
,
lµν(k, q) = Vµκλ(k, k − q, q)Tλγ(q)Vσνγ(k − q, k,−q)
(
Tκσ(k − q)
Lκσ(k − q)
)
.
As it can be observed after explicit evaluation of the tensor structures lTµν and lLµν using the force
correlator (19), and integration over dΩ, the wavelet factor in the effective force correlator ∆(q)
suppresses the divergences in the case of a narrow-band forcing (12). The power factor kn of the
basic wavelet ψ that provides ψ̃(0) = 0 and makes the IR behavior softer. In this respect the
wavelet regularization is different from the continuous regularization
∫
ddyRΛ(∂2)η(y, τ), which
makes UV behavior softer by the factor e−
k2
Λ2 , but do not affect the IR behavior, see e.g. [17].
4 Wavelet-based Euclidean field theory
4.1 QFT on a Lie group
Let us consider a Euclidean field theory determined by a characteristic functional
WE [J ] = N
∫
Dφ exp
[
−SE [φ(x)] +
∫
ddxJ(x)φ(x)
]
Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization 9
where SE [φ(x)] is Euclidean action, N is formal normalization constant. The (connected) Green
functions (m-point cumulative moments) are evaluated as functional derivatives of the logarithm
of generating functional WE [J ] = e−ZE [J ]:
Gm(x1, . . . , xm) ≡ 〈φ(x1) . . . φ(xm)〉 = − δm
δJ(x1) · · · δJ(xm)
∣∣∣∣
J=0
lnWE [J ].
Applying a formal partition of a unity (2) with respect to a Lie group G we yield a theory with
the generating functional
Wg[J(g)] = N
∫
Dφ(g) exp
[
−Sg[φ(g)] +
∫
G
dµ(g)J(g)φ(g)
]
, g ∈ G
and appropriately defined Green functions.
4.2 Wavelet-based action
Let us consider the theory of a massive scalar field with polynomial interaction
SE [φ] =
∫
Rd
ddx
[
1
2
(∂µφ)2 +
m2
2
φ2 + λV (φ)
]
, (20)
that can be alternatively interpreted as a theory of classical fluctuating field with the Wiener
probability measure DP = e−SE [φ]Dφ. In this case m2 = |T − Tc| is the deviation from critical
temperature and λ is the fluctuation interaction strength.
To introduce the scale-dependent fields φa(b) into the action we can just substitute the
fields φ into (20) using wavelet transform (4). For convenience and recording purposes, we
rewrite continuous wavelet transform (5), (4) using the L1 norm
φa(b) =
∫
1
ad
ψ
(
x− b
a
)
φ(x)ddx,
φ(x) =
2
Cψ
∫ ∞
0
da
a
∫
Rd
ddbφa(b)
1
ad
ψ
(
x− b
a
)
, (21)
Cψ = S−1
d
∫
|ψ̃(k)|2
|k|d
ddk = 2
∫ ∞
0
|ψ̃(ak)|2
a
da <∞.
This provides the fields φ(x) = 〈x|φ〉 and φa(x) = 〈a, x;ψ|φ〉 with the same physical dimension.
The generating functional for the scale-dependent functions φa(b) is
W [Ja(b)] =
∫
Dφa(b)
(
−SEW [φa(b)] +
∫
Ja(b)φa(b)
daddb
a
)
,
where Ja(b) is a formal source (“external force”), which corresponds to the fluctuations of given
scale a localized near a given point b. The corresponding Green functions a given by
G(a1, x1; . . . ; an, xn) = − δ lnW [Ja(x)]
δJa1(x1)δJan(xn)
∣∣∣∣
J=0
= 〈φa1(x1) . . . φan(xn)〉.
Let us consider a theory with polynomial interaction V (φ) = g
n!φ
n
SEW =
∫
−1
2
φa1(b1)D(a1, a2; b1 − b2)φa2(b2) +
m2
2
|φa(b)|2
+
g
n!
V a1...an
b1...bn
φa1(b1) · · ·φan(bn), (22)
10 M.V. Altaisky
V a1...an
b1...bn
=
∫
ddxV (x1, . . . , xn)
n∏
i=1
1
adi
ψ
(
x− bi
ai
)
, (23)
where integration over all pairs of matching indices daid
dbi
Cψai
is assumed. The inverse propagator
is the wavelet image of (−∂2 +m2), that is
D(a1, a2, k) = ψ̃(a1k)(k2 +m2)ψ̃(a2k).
As it is seen from (23), the local interaction term φn becomes nonlocal after the application of
wavelet transform (21). Of course, since the wavelet transform provides the partition of a unity,
the integration over all scale arguments in the theory (22) drives it back to the original field
theory with polynomial interactions, which is UV divergent. However, using the Wilson’s RG
ideas we shall show how the nonlocal wavelet theory (22) can be made into a local one, which
has UV finite behavior.
Let us suppose that we manage to make the wavelet theory with nonlocal interaction (23)
into a local one with the coupling constant explicitly dependent on scale g = g(a). The simplest
case of the fourth power interaction of this type is
Vint[φ] =
1
Cψ
∫
g(a)
4!
φ4
a(b)
dadb
a
, g(a) ∼ aν . (24)
The one-loop order contribution to the Green function G2 in the theory with local interac-
tion (24) can be easily evaluated [18] by integration over a scalar variable z = ak:∫
aν |ψ̃(ak)|2
k2 +m2
ddk
(2π)d
da
a
= C
(ν)
ψ
∫
ddk
(2π)d
k−ν
k2 +m2
,
where
C
(ν)
ψ = C−1
ψ
∫
|ψ̃(z)|2zν−1dz.
Therefore, there are no UV divergences for ν > d−2. However, the positive values of ν mean that
the interaction strengths at large scales and diminishes at small. (This is a kind of asymptotically
free theory that is hardly appropriate say to magnetic systems.)
We have to admit that the idea of using wavelets for regularization and blocking of degrees
of freedom has been considered by G. Battle [19] and P. Federbush [20] in lattice settings. The
idea was to sum up the discrete wavelet expansion of a function starting from a large infra-red
scale (set to unity) up to the infinitesimally small scale instead of integrating in Fourier space.
The expansion was taken in the form
φ(x) =
∑
k
αkuk(x), uk(x) =
1√
−∆ +m2
Ψk(x), (25)
where k = (n,m, s) is a multiindex that incorporates translations and binary dilations on the
lattice as well as internal degrees of freedom of the field φ, Ψk(x) forms an orthogonal basis
in L2(Rd). It have been understood then that different subgrids involved in the wavelet expan-
sion (25) represent different independent degrees of freedom [21], rather than being just different
approximation of the same field like that in Kadanoff block expansion. The corresponding dia-
gram technique, called “wavelet diagrams” and originally proposed by Federbush, can be found
in Battle’s book [19].
For a particular type of wavelet basis, the Lemarié wavelets, it was shown that due to the
big number of vanishing momenta of the basic wavelets Ψk the correlations between different
Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization 11
block variables 〈αkαk′〉 decrease as a high inverse power of the separation between blocks. As
a consequence of this a field theory S[φ(x)] becomes UV-finite without any renormalization.
However the decoupling of interaction between different scales seems to have quite general
nature and that is the reason we exploit this idea in present paper in terms of continuous
wavelet transform without using any lattices.
Now we will try to show how the local interaction of type (24) can emerge. Following
K. Wilson [10, 11] we consider a system of spins with spacing L0. The idea of RG applied to
a spin system is that the interaction of spins separated by a distance L0, can be substituted by
interaction of blocks (of 2d spins in each) of size 2L0 with the high-frequency details absorbed
into the interaction constants. The same procedure is then applied to the blocks of 2L0 size,
blocks of 4L0 size etc. – this is so-called Kadanoff blocking procedure. On each step of the
blocking procedure the transformation from the scale L to 2L is done by integrating over the high
frequency degrees of freedom K > 2π
L with appropriate adjustment of the coupling constants.
In continuous limit, i.e. in Landau theory of ferromagnetism, when spins are averaged into
the mean magnetization φ(x), the energy of the spin system is given by the Ginzburg–Landau
free energy functional
FE [φ] =
∫
ddx
[
1
2
(∂φ)2 +
R
2
φ2 +
U
4!
φ4
]
, (26)
where integration is performed over the domain occupied by the spin system. The field theory
(26) gives divergences in correlation functions. To cope with it we remind that φ(x) is the
mean magnetization of a macroscopically big block, i.e. one that contains enough spins to make
statistical averaging valid. This means that the field φ should be substituted by one containing
only the fluctuations of size larger than a typical scale L:
φ(x) → φ(L)(x) =
∫
|k|< 2π
L
e−ıkxψ̃(k)
ddk
(2π)d
. (27)
So, the original Ginzburg–Landau functional is made into effective action for the large-scale
fields φ(L)
FL[φ(L)] =
∫
ddx
[
1
2
(∂φ(L))
2 +
RL
2
φ2
(L) +
UL
4!
φ4
(L)
]
, (28)
in which the effects of small-scale fluctuations with |k| ≥ 2π
L are absorbed into the coupling
constants RL and UL. It should be noted that the projection (27), performed by filtering out
the Fourier harmonics with |k| ≥ 2π
L , is not the only possible type of smoothing: an exponential
or proper-time cutoff can be used as well [22]. Similar projection can be obtained if we apply
the wavelet transform with certain given kernel φ(x) → φa(b).
Wilson suggested an elegant way to determine the dependence of RL and UL on the cutoff
scale L by averaging over fluctuations in the shell [L,L+ δL) [10, 9, 11]. Since we understand
the fluctuations of a given scale φa(b) – now in wavelet notation – as physical fields measured
at scale a, we will reproduce the Wilson’s derivation integrating the scale-dependent free-energy
F [φa(b)] in appropriate limits over the logarithm of scale a−1da. The larger is the scale L, the
more fluctuations of smaller scales contribute to free energy.
Let L0 be the smallest size of the system – the distance between spins in the theory of
ferromagnetism. Then, the Kadanoff blocking procedure is a mapping
{ψ(0)
k } → {ψ(1)
k } → {ψ(2)
k } → · · · ,
H(0)(R0, U0) → H(1)(R1, U1) → H(2)(R2, U2) → · · · ,
12 M.V. Altaisky
where {ψ(0)
k } is the basis for the finest resolution Hilbert space, with H(0)(R0, U0) being the
Hamiltonian acting on this space, {ψ(1)
k } is the basis of the next coarse-grained space of the
resolution 2L0, etc. At each step of the coarse graining process some details are lost, so any
function ψ(1)
k of the basis {ψ(1)
k } can be expanded in the basis {ψ(0)
k }; and similarly for all next
scales:
ψ
(j)
i =
∑
k
cj+1
ik ψ
(j)
k ,
since {ψ(j)
k } is more detailed than {ψ(j+1)
k }.
Expanding the more coarse-grained basic functions in terms of the less coarse-grained one we
obtain the expansion of the parameters of the coarser Hamiltonian H(j+1) in terms of the finer
Hamiltonian H(j). Wilson suggested a qualitative way of doing that. Suppose we know the free
energy functional FL[φ] of scale L and need to calculate the next coarser functional FL+δL[φ] of
scale L+ δL. Then, we have to add fluctuations of all scales within the range [L,L+ δL) to the
original theory and integrate over those fluctuations. If ψ(x) is a normalized basic function of
scale L, e.g. a wave packet with k ≈ 2π
L , such that∫
ddx|ψ(x)|2 = 1,
∫
ddx|∂ψ(x)|2 ' L−2, (29)
we just make φ(x) → φ(x) + cψ(x) and integrate over the scalar amplitude c:
e−FL+δL[φ] =
∫ ∞
−∞
dme−FL[φ+mψ]. (30)
Substituting the free energy (28) into the condition (30) and taking into account the condi-
tions (29) we get
e−FL+δL[φ] = e−FL[φ]
∫ ∞
−∞
dme
−m2
2
(
1
L2 +RL+ 1
2
ULφ
2
)
. (31)
The derivation is not very rigorous, and referring the reader to the original paper [11] for the
details, we just have to state that using the formal properties of Gaussian integration in (31),
up to the numerical factors, we get a logarithmic contribution to the free energy
FL+δL[φ] = FL[φ] +
1
2
ln
(
1
L2
+RL +
1
2
ULφ
2
)
. (32)
To derive the dependence of RL and UL on scale L two more tricks were used by Wilson:
(i) the logarithm in (32) is decomposed into a Taylor series; (ii) integration over the phase space
volume corresponding to the d.o.f. related to the wavepacket ψ is changed into integration over
the coordinate volume δV using the uncertainty principle.
The logarithm is decomposed into the power series only up to the second order – to get the
forth order in the fields. Up to the terms that do not depend on φ we get
1
2
ln
(
1
L2
+RL +
1
2
ULφ
2
)
=
1
4
(
ULL
2φ2 − 1
4
L4φ4 −RLULL
4φ2
)
+ · · · . (33)
The next trick is to count the degrees of freedom corresponding to the localized wavepacket ψ.
Since the scales are in the range [L,L + δL), the volume in momentum space is δp
2π ∼
δL
L2 . The
phase space volume, since p ≈ 2π/L, is
δΓ ∼ V pd−1δp ∼ V L−1−dδL,
Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization 13
and, hence, the coordinate volume per one degree of freedom is
δV ∼ L1+d
δL
.
Thus the equation (33) can be formally multiplied by 1 = δV L−1−dδL and integrated over the
volume δV . This results in equations
RL+δL = RL +
1
2
(
L1−dUL − L3−dRLUL
)
δL,
UL+δL = UL −
3
2
L3−dU2
LδL.
See [23] for general theory of renormalization in field theory and critical phenomena.
The above Wilson’s consideration was presented only to show how integration in the thin
shell below the cutoff renormalizes the parameters of the action. More rigorous formalism that
accounts for the change of the action parameters by means of integration over the infinitesimally
thin shell 1 − δl < |q| < 1 in momentum space, followed by rescaling, consists in constructing
differential equations for the variation of the action functional. It is known as exact renorma-
lization group (ERG). The ERG equations are rather complicated and can be found elsewhere
[24, 10, 25]. If solved numerically, the ERG equations could provide exact scale dependence
of the coupling constants on cutoff scale in terms of the considered model. The problems are,
however, that (i) it is often impossible to solve these equations, (ii) the cutoff scale is not the
same as the scale of observation, and hence it is not obvious how to interpret the ERG results;
(iii) and the last, but not the least, that it is not clear how to separate the modes to be integrated
over from those to be renormalized by this integration using the space of functions that depend
only on momentum φ(k) ([10], Fig. 11.2). Here we propose an alternative solution of the mode
separation problem: we just extend the space of functions adding the scale argument explicitly
φ(·) → φa(·).
Having the information on the dependence on scale of the effective mass RL and coupling
constant UL we can address the question, how the effective theory (28) that comprises nonlocal
interactions of all modes larger than L can be transformed into a theory with the local interac-
tions of scales of the type (24). To do this we approximate the original Ginzburg–Landau action
F , by a new action
FE [φ] =
∫
daddb
a
[
−1
2
φa1(b1)Dφa2(b2) +
m2(a)
2
|φa(b)|2 +
g(a)
4!
|φa(b)|4
]
. (34)
That meets physical requirements by construction: for a free field (g(a) = 0) it coincides with
the original free action; for the interacting fields, it just satisfies the Wilson’s assumption that
only the f luctuations of the close scale interact: in the case of the action (34), certainly the
equal scales only.
Since the action (34) explicitly involves integration in scale variable da/a, we can attribute
the difference in the free energies (33) to interaction of the appropriate “renormalized” modes,
governed by the equation (34), in the shell [L,L+ δL).
The n > 2 the polynomial interactions are nonlocal in wavelet space. To derive their interac-
tion constant dependence on scale, we use the physical assumptions that only the fluctuations
of close scales can directly interact to each other. So, in the self-interaction of the field φ
UL
∫
L
φ(x)nddx = UL
∫
L
V a1...an
b1...bn
φa1(b1) · · ·φan(bn)
n∏
i=1
daid
dbi
ai
14 M.V. Altaisky
the terms with | ln ai − ln aj | � 1 should dominate, from where we can postulate that
UL
∫
L
V a1...an
b1...bn
φa1(b1) · · ·φan(bn)
n∏
i=1
daid
dbi
ai
=
∫
L
da
a
∫
g(a)|φa(b)|nddb (35)
for some g(a).
It should be noted that similar idea of orthogonalization of fluctuations of different scales has
been already applied to Ginzburg–Landau model by C.Best using discrete wavelet transform.
However, the Best’s paper [26], having started from continuous Ginzburg–Landau model, uses
orthogonal wavelets and sufficiently strong assumptions that fluctuations of different scales are
δ-correlated in both position and scale (equation (4) from [26]). This is definitely not the case for
arbitrary (non-orthogonal) wavelets and standard assumption of Gaussian nature of fluctuations
in ordinary continuous model (26). Nevertheless, the Best’s idea is numerically convenient and
it is interesting for what type of wavelets such behavior is really observed.
Let us perform the asymptotic estimation of the behavior of g(a) at the known behavior
of UL. Let us assume that interaction takes place at the thin shell of scales [L,L+ δL) and set
a1 = · · · = an = L. Since we need the behavior of the local interaction of the type (24), we set
b1 = · · · = bn = 0 in the r.h.s. of (35) to get the upper bound for g(a). Doing so, we get
V a...a
0...0 =
∫
ddx
1
and
ψn
(x
a
)
= a(1−n)d
∫
ddyψn(y).
In Wilson’s theory (n = 4, d < 4)
UL =
1
3
2
L4−d
4−d + const
L→∞∼ Ld−4,
and hence
g(L) ∼ L−3dUL ∼ L−2d−4. (36)
The important point is that in the theory (34) the observable quantities are the correlators of the
scale-dependent functions 〈φa1(b1)φa2(b2)〉. If we deal with “renormalized” action (34), where
only equal scales interact polynomially, the loop integrals can be easily evaluated for a fixed
value of scale. In the fourth power interaction theory the one-loop contribution to the Green
function will be∫ amax
amin
da
a
g(a)
∫
ddk
(2π)d
|ψ̃(ak)|2
k2 +m2
=
∫ amax
amin
da
a
g(a)L(a). (37)
The k-dependent integral in the last equation (37) can be explicitly evaluated. As an example,
let us present a “bad” case of the Morlet wavelet ψ̃(k) = exp
(
ıkz − k2
2
)
, which is not admissible
in the sense Cψ = ∞,
L(a) = Sd
∫ ∞
0
e−a
2q2qd−1
q2 +m2
ddq
(2π)d
d=4,m=1→ −a4ea
2
Ei(1, a2) + a2
a2
a2−d
2
.
For admissible wavelets (Cψ <∞) the IR behavior is milder.
Certainly, the integral
∫ amax
amin
da
a g(a)L(a) in any positive range of scales and with the coupling
constant g(a) taken from (36) is finite.
Scale-Dependent Functions, Stochastic Quantization and Renormalization 15
5 Conclusion
In this paper we attempt to construct a theory of scale-dependent fields φa(b) starting from an
action functional that explicitly depends of these fields, rather than being a local functional S[φ]
truncated at certain scale L by averaging over the short-wave fluctuations |k| > 2π
L . The diffe-
rence is that in our theory it is meaningful to consider the correlation functions 〈φa1(b1)φa2(b2)〉
between different points and different scales. This is important because any experimental mea-
surement is performed not exactly in a point, but in a certain vicinity of a point, the size of
which is constrained at least by the uncertainty principle: the higher momentum is used in the
measurement, the smaller is the vicinity and the stronger is the perturbation caused by the
measurement. Thus we have a strong need do construct a theory in terms of what is really mea-
sured in experiment – scale-dependent (wavelet) fields φa(b), rather than in terms of abstract
“no-scale” functions φ(x).
Standard RG approach meets this need only partially: it enables to study the dependence of
correlations on separation between points, b = b1− b2 in our terms, but not on the typical scale
of interaction. The latter is described in terms of the correlation length ξ = ξ(T ), which has
a universal behavior near the critical temperature ξ(T ) ∼ (T −Tc)−ν . The Kadanoff hypothesis
that blocks of spins interact exactly as spins themselves becomes strictly valid only in critical
regime ξ → ∞ at T → Tc. In other cases there are no reasons to assume that fluctuations of
different sizes do not interact to each other and 〈φa1(b1)φa2(b2)〉 = 0 for a1 6= a2, instead the
inter-scale interaction is expressed by wavelet diagrams.
As it concerns the criticality, our approach may be close to the ideas of functional self-
similarity (FS) [27]: at the critical point the blocks of spins can interact with each other in
the same way as primitive spins themselves, but the coupling constant is scale-covariant, i.e. its
transformation with changing of scale depends on the value of coupling constant, but not on the
scale.
For a quantum field theory models, which arise from the high energy physics problems, the
Kadanoff block-averaging procedure can not be directly applied. Instead the universal behavior
of the coupling constant g = g(a) with respect to the scale transformations a′ = eλa should be
considered as a fundamental symmetry of the physical system. Indeed, the coupling constant
g(a) is a charge of a given particle with respect to a given interaction measured at a given scale a.
Since the experiments can be performed at different scales a0 < a1 < a2 < · · · , we should expect
a universal relation between the values of charges at different scales, and it should be an invariant
charge, such that g0 ≡ ζ(a0, e0) = ζ(a2/a0, e2) = ζ(a1/a0, e1), or, since e1 = ζ(a2/a1, e2),
ζ(a, g) = ζ(a/t, ζ(t, g)). (38)
The transformation of the charges between different scales (38) has a structure of the Abelian
group Tt1t2 = Tt1 ◦ Tt2 . It describes the evolution of the coupling constant with the change of
measurement parameter – the resolution a.
In differential form the self-similarity equation (38) is most naturally expressed in the loga-
rithmic coordinate l = log a:
G(l + λ, g) = G(l, G(λ, g)),
or (
∂
∂l
− β(g)
∂
∂g
)
G(l, g) = 0, where β(g) =
∂G(λ, g)
∂λ
∣∣∣∣
λ=0
.
The latter is referred to as the Lie–Ovsyannikov equation.
16 M.V. Altaisky
In general case a quantity f(l, g), which is not an invariant charge, is not nullified by the
generator of RG transform e−λR̂f(l, g) 6= f(l, g), but the generator
R̂ =
(
∂
∂l
− β(g)
∂
∂g
)
determines the evolution of physical quantities under the scale transformations.
In our approach we extend the space of functions φ(x) ∈ L2(Rd) to the space of multiscale
(wavelet) fields φa(b) for which both the position b and the scale a are considered as independent
variables. The RG transform therefore becomes just an Abelian subgroup of the whole symmetry
group of the action S[φa(b)] described above in this paper. The difference between our approach
and the exact renormalization group approach (ERG) consists in the fact that ERG generating
functional
ZΛ[J ] =
∫ ∏
|p|≤Λ
Dφ(p)e−S[φ;Λ]−
∫
dpJφ
is just a sum of all fluctuations truncated by a cutoff momentum Λ in their Fourier repre-
sentation, and therefore having certain symmetries related to the rescaling of Λ – the cutoff
parameter. In our approach the logarithm of scale l = log a becomes an independent variable, so
the technique of Lie symmetry analysis can be applied with respect to l on the same footing as
with respect to the position x. In this way the vector field that generates arbitrary transforma-
tions of the action S[φa(b)] due to the transformation of dependent and independent variables
takes the form
V̂ = λ
(
∂
∂l
− β(g)
∂
∂g
)
+ ξ
∂
∂x
+ η
∂
∂φ
.
We hope that such symmetries could be used to find solutions of the wavelet renormalization
equation (35).
Acknowledgement
The author is thankful to the referee for useful comments and references.
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1 Introduction
2 Wavelets and scale-dependent functions
2.1 What is wavelet transform
2.2 Scale-dependent functions
2.3 Wavelets and random processes
3 Stochastic quantization
3.1 Parisi-Wu stochastic quantization
3.2 Wavelet-based stochastic quantization
3.3 Scalar field theory
3.4 Non-Abelian gauge theory
4 Wavelet-based Euclidean field theory
4.1 QFT on a Lie group
4.2 Wavelet-based action
5 Conclusion
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